Transcript Document

Teaching Individual Words:
One Size Does Not Fit All!
mommy
Michael F. Graves
University of Minnesota, Emeritus
[email protected]
IRA Annual Convention
Atlanta, Georgia
kitty
May, 2008
timid
1
[email protected]
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
2
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
3
Teaching Individual
Words
One Size
Does Not Fit All
Michael F. Graves
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
4
The Importance of Vocabulary
Vocabulary knowledge is one of the best indicators of verbal
ability.
Vocabulary knowledge in kindergarten and first grade is a
significant predictor or reading comprehension in the middle and
secondary grades.
Vocabulary difficulty strongly influences the readability of text.
In fact, vocabulary is far and away the most significant factor
influencing text difficulty.
Teaching vocabulary can improve reading comprehension for
both native English speakers and English learners. (Graves,
2006, 2007)
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
5
The Vocabulary Learning Task
The vocabulary learning task is huge.
The average fourth grader probably knows 5,000-10,000 words.
The average high school graduate probably knows 50,000
words.
To acquire this extensive vocabulary, he or she has learned
something like 3,500 words a year.
This translates to learning 10 words a day.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
6
Vocabulary Deficits
Some students face debilitating vocabulary deficits.
Many children of poverty enter school with vocabularies have
the size of their middle-class counterparts (Hart & Risley, 1995,
2003).
Once in school, they continue to learn words at about half the
rate of their peers.
In the intermediate grades and high school, their vocabularies
are still half the size of those of their
peers, possibly less.
The same is true of many English learners.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
7
Assisting Students in Building Strong Vocabularies
Helping average students achieve vocabularies of 50,000 words
is a very substantial task.
Helping students with small vocabularies catch up with their
peers is an even more substantial task.
Only a rich and multifaceted vocabulary program is likely to help
students accomplish these tasks (Baumann & Kaméenui, 2004;
Blachowicz, Fisher, Ogle, & Watts-Taffe, 2006; Graves, 2006;
Stahl & Nagy, 2006).
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
8
A Four-Pronged Vocabulary Program
Frequent, varied, and extensive language experiences
Teaching individual words
Teaching word-learning strategies
Fostering word consciousness
See Baumann, Ware, and Edwards (2007)
for a study validating this program.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
9
Teaching Individual Words Is Just One Part of a
Comprehensive and Multifaceted Vocabulary Program
With something like 3,500 words to learn each year, teaching
individual words is just one part of the comprehensive and multipart program such as that outlined below and needs to
recognized as a part of that whole.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
10
Frequent, Varied, and Extensive Language Experiences
 Reading, writing, discussion, and listening
 The emphasis on these four modalities and the
teaching/learning approaches used will vary over time.
 With younger and less proficient readers, there is more
discussion and listening and more teacher-led work.
 With older and more proficient readers, there is more reading
and writing and more independent work.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
11
Teaching Word-Learning Strategies
•
Using context
•
Learning and using word parts
•
Using glossaries and the dictionary
•
Recognizing and using cognates (for Spanish speakers)
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
12
Some Types of Word Consciousness Activities
• Creating a Word-Rich Environment
• Recognizing and Promoting Adept Diction
• Promoting Word Play
• Fostering Word Consciousness Through Writing
• Involving Students in Original Investigations
• Teaching Students about Words
(Graves & Watts-Taffe, 2002, 2007)
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
13
Teaching Individual Words: The Word-Learning Tasks
Students Face
• Building a basic oral vocabulary
• Learning to read known words
• Learning to read new words representing known concepts
• Learning to read new words representing new and challenging
concepts
• Learning new meanings for known words
• Clarifying and enriching the meanings of known words
• Moving words into students’ expressive vocabularies
• Building English learners’ vocabularies
• Teaching vocabulary to improve comprehension
14
Teaching Individual Words: Levels of Word Knowledge
• No knowledge
• Very general sense
• Narrow, context-bound knowledge
• Having a basic knowledge of a word and being able to use it in
many appropriate situations.
• Rich, decontextualized knowledge
Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002
[slightly modified]
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
15
Teaching Individual Words: Identifying Words To Teach—
1
• Word lists (Biemiller, in press; Chall & Dale, 1995, Coxhead,
2000; Fry, 2006; Hiebert, 2005)
• Testing or asking students (Anderson & Freebody, 1983; White,
Slater, & Graves, 1989)
• Selecting tier two words (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002)
• Considering five questions (Graves, 2006, in press)
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
16
Identifying Words to Teach—2
Fry’s 1,000 Instant Words (Fry & Kress, 2007). The 1,000 most
frequent words
Dale’s list of 3,000 Words (Chall & Dale, 1995). 3,000 words that
most 4th graders know
Hiebert's Word Zones: 5,586/3,913 Words grouped into set of
~300, ~500, ~1000, and ~2000 words. The 4,000 most frequent
word families http://www.textproject.org/library/resources
Biemiller's Words Worth Teaching in Kindergarten-Grade Two and
in Grades Three-Six (Biemiller, in press). One list of about 2,000
words and one of about 4,000 words.
Coxhead's Academic Word (Coxhead, 2000): 570 word families
that occur reasonably frequently over a range of academic texts.
http://language.massey.ac.nz/staff/awl/corpus.shtml
17
Identifying Words To Teach—3: Considering five
questions
• Is understanding the word important to understanding the
selection?
• Does this word represent a specific concept students definitely
need to know?
• Are students able to use context or structural-analysis skills to
discover the word's meaning?
• Can working with this word be useful in furthering students’ context,
structural analysis, or dictionary skills?
• How useful is this word outside of the reading selection currently
being taught?
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
18
Some Characteristics of Effective Instruction for
Individual Words
• Instruction that involves both definitional information and
contextual information is markedly stronger than instruction
that involves only one of these.
• Instruction that involves activating prior knowledge and
comparing and contrasting meanings is stronger still.
• More lengthy and more robust instruction that involves
students in actively manipulating meanings, making
inferences, searching for applications, using prior knowledge,
and frequent encounters is still stronger.
• Stronger vocabulary instruction takes more time, and with the
number of words to be learned we very often do not have more
time.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
19
Three Levels of Effective Instruction for Individual
Words
• Level One. (1) Pronounce the word, (2) provide a student friendly
definition, and (3) use the word in a contextually rich sentence.
• Level Two. (1) Pronounce the word, (2) provide a student friendly
definition, (3) use the word in a contextually rich sentence, and (4)
provide an activity that requires students to activate prior knowledge
or compare and contrast meanings.
• Level Three. (1) Pronounce the word, (2) provide a student friendly
definition, (3) use the word in a contextually rich sentence, (4) provide
an activity that requires students to activate prior knowledge or
compare and contrast meanings, and (5) and involve students in
actively manipulating meanings, making inferences, and/or searching
for applications.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
20
Some Things Not to Do in Teaching Individual Words
Merely mentioning word meanings and assuming that you have
therefore taught them
Giving students words out of context and asking them to look up
the words in the dictionary
Asking students to use context before teaching them how to do so
Doing speeded trials with individual words
Giving students only a definition or only the word in context
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
21
PROVIDING STUDENT-FRIENDLY DEFINITIONS—A KEY
TO ANY METHOD OF INSTRUCTION
Providing student-friendly definitions—ones that are accurate and that
students will understand—is no mean task. Below are a definition of
dazzling from the dictionary on my computer and a student-friendly
definition from Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2003).
“bright enough to deprive someone of sight temporarily”
“If something is dazzling, that means that it’s so bright that you can
hardly look at it.”
The Collins COBUILD New Student’s Dictionary (Harper-Collins, 2006)
and the Longman Study Dictionary of American English (2006) provide
many excellent examples of student-friendly definitions.
22
BUILDING A BASIC ORAL VOCABULARY: SHARED
BOOK READING
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
23
Characteristics of Effective Shared Book Reading
 Both the adult readers and children are active participants.
 Involves several readings
 Focuses attention on words
 The reading is fluent, engaging, and lively.
 Deliberately stretches students and scaffolds their efforts
 Employs carefully selected words and books
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
24
Biemiller’s Approach to Shared Book Reading
• Select books that are interesting, enjoyable, and contain the sorts
of words you want to teach: 30 books for the year.
• Select words known by some but not all students, not Beck’s tier 2
words. 24 words per book
• Day 1: Read the book once, including some comprehension
questions.
• Days 2-4. Read the book 3 times teaching 8 of the 24 words each
time. Definitions should be short and student friendly.
• Day 5. Review all 24 words in new contexts but with the same
definitions.
Biemiller & Slonim, 2006
25
Sales & Graves First 4,000 Word Approach to Shared Book
Reading
• It is individualized and web-based, with a lot of interaction and
games.
• It is targeted at students with small English listening vocabularies in
grades 1-4.
• It teaches the most frequent 4,000 word families.
• Students move through the program at their own pace, and can
move up or back depending on their performance on online tests
on each of 400 units, which each deal with 10 words.
• In each unit, students are only taught those of the 10 words that the
pretest indicated they do not know.
Sales & Graves, 2007
26
What It Means to Know the Most Frequent 4,000 Words
• The words we are teaching are 3,913 word families (base words
and their common inflected forms) taken from a list developed by
Hiebert (2005). Hiebert divided the words into four “zones”: the first
300 words, the next 500 words, the next 1,200 words, and the final
2,000 words.
• The value of knowing these words is shown in the next four slides,
which show a passage from a biography written for upper
elementary students and the words that would be familiar to
students who knew (1) only the 300 words in Zone 1, (2) the 800
words in Zones 1-2, the 2,000 words in Zones 1-3, and the 4,000
words in Zones 1-4.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
27
(1) Knowing only the 300 words in Zone 1, a student could
read only the words shown here.
Could it be an ________? The year before,
had seen one for
the first time when his mother took him to a ______ __________ in
, ________. He had _______,
, as the _____ ____ a _______
_____________ by ________ _______ on the _______ of a
__________ that was ______ on the ______. Now _____ an ________
was right here in _________, and about to ___ over his house.
Not _______ to
a thing, _______ ______ the ______ and _______
up the _______ ____ of the house to its ____. From there he had a
good ____ of the ___________ _____, _______ ____ the
place. And in the ___, ______ ever ______, he saw the _____.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
28
(2) Knowing the 800 words in Zones 1 and 2, a student
could read the words shown in this version.
Could it be an
? The year before,
had seen one for the
first time when his mother took him to a
__________ in ____
_____, ________. He had watched,
, as the
gave a
by ________ _______ on the _______ of a ___________ that was
______ on the ground. Now maybe an ________ was right here in
_________, and about to ___ over his house.
Not _______ to ____ a thing, _______ opened the window and
_______ up the _______ ____ of the house to its ____. From there
he had a good view of the ___________ River, _______ _______ past
the _______ place. And in the sky, coming ever ______, he saw the
_____.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
29
(3) Knowing the 2,000 words in Zones 1-3, a student
could read the words shown in this version.
Could it be an airplane? The year before, Charles had seen one for
the first time when his mother took him to a flying __________ in ____
_____, Virginia. He had watched, _________, as the _____ gave a
_______ _____________ by ________ oranges on the _______ of a
__________ that was ______ on the ground. Now maybe an airplane
was right here in _________, and about to fly over his house.
Not _______ to ____ a thing, Charles opened the window and climbed
up the _______ roof of the house to its ____. From there he had a
good view of the ___________ River, _______ ________ past the
__________ place. And in the sky, coming ever closer, he saw the
plane.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
30
(4) Knowing the 4,000 words in Zones 1-4, a student
would be able to read everything in the version below that
not in grey.
Could it be an airplane? The year before, Charles had seen one for
the first time when his mother took him to a flying exhibition in Fort
Myer, Virginia. He had watched, enthralled, as the pilot gave a
bombing demonstration by dropping oranges on the outline of a
battleship that was traced on the ground. Now maybe an airplane was
right here in Minnesota, and about to fly over his house.
Not wanting to miss a thing, Charles opened the window and climbed
up the sloping roof of the house to its peak. From there he had a good
view of the Mississippi River, flowing languidly past the Lindbergh
place. And in the sky, coming ever closer, he saw the plane.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
31
First 4,000 Words Opening Screen
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
32
Story Level Listening Pre-Assessment: The Tree
House Studio
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
33
First 4,000 Words Cozy Cave
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
34
Shared Book Reading: Level 2
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
35
35
Sample Game Format
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
36
36
RICH AND POWERFUL INSTRUCTION
• Semantic mapping (Heimlich & Pittleman, 1986)
• Semantic feature analysis (Pittleman et al., 1991)
• Vocabulary visits (Blachowicz & Obrochta, 2005)
• Robust instruction (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002)
• Frayer method (Frayer, Frederick, & Klausmeier, 1969)
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
37
Semantic Mapping
1. Put a word representing a central concept on the board,
overhead, or lcd.
2. Ask students to work in groups listing as many words related to
the central concept as they can.
3. Display students’ words grouped in broad categories.
4. Have students name the categories and perhaps suggest
additional ones.
5. Discuss with students the central concept, the other words, the
categories, and their interrelationships.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
38
Semantic Mapping Example
Conditions
Owners
Run down
Hard to reach
Small
Make good money
Crowded
Don't live there
Drab
Often don't care
TENEMENT
Costs
Tenants
Not cheap
People without a lot of money
Lower than some places
New immigrants
Too high
City people
Large families
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
39
Semantic Feature Analysis
1. Construct a grid that contains a set of related words on one axis and a
list of features that each of the words may or may not have on the other
axis.
2. Initially, show students a completed grid and discuss what the checks
and pluses indicate.
3. Later, show students grids with the terms and attributes filled in but
without the pluses and minuses and ask students to insert them.
4. Later still, show grids with some terms and some attributes, ask
students to add to both the list of related words and the list of attributes,
and then to fill in the pluses and minuses.
5. After students are proficient in working with partially completed grids
you supply, they can create their own grids for sets of related words
they suggest.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
40
Semantic Feature Analysis Example
narrow wide
paved
unpaved
for walking
for driving
___________________________________________________________________
_______
path
+
+
+
___________________________________________________________________
_______
trail
+
+
+
___________________________________________________________________
_______
road
+
+
+
+
+
___________________________________________________________________
_______
lane
+
+
+
+
+
___________________________________________________________________
_______
boulevard +
+
+
___________________________________________________________________
_______
freeway
+
+
+
___________________________________________________________________
_______
Mike +Graves, Univ-of Minn
41
turnpike
+
+
___________________________________________________________________
Vocabulary Visits
• Model the instruction on the plan and activities of a field trip.
• Identify a topic, thematically oriented informational texts, and key words.
• Choose a photo to stimulate discussion and anchor a large poster.
• Have students list the words they know about the topic and put them on the
poster.
• Take a field trip using the poster: Ask students for words they see, hear, and
feel. Put them on the poster on post-its, grouping related words.
• Read sections of the books aloud. Have kids give "thumbs up" when they hear
one of the words. Add key words to the poster as necessary.
• Finish the books. Reorganize words as seems appropriate
• Do extension activities like word games, sorting, writing, and reading new
topically related books.
• Evaluate with such activities as listing words and writing summaries of the books,
plays, or poetry that focus on the topic.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
42
Vocabulary Visits: Some “Skeleton” Words Taught
bone
skull
leg
arm
wrist
ankle
foot
ribs
brain
spine
backbone
protect
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
43
Vocabulary Visits: Number of Words Learned
Student
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Before V V
8
7
4
6
7
4
4
7
5
7
3
4
5
5
0
0
0
0
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
After V V
20
23
6
23
27
32
13
8
10
26
10
18
11
11
6
6
14
19
44
Robust Instruction
1. Begin with a student-friendly definition.
2. Have students work with the word more than once.
3. Provide the word in more than one context.
4. Engage students in activities in which they deal with various
facets of the target word’s meaning and with investigating
relationships between the target word and other words.
5. Have students create uses for the word.
6. Encourage students to use the word outside of class.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
45
Robust Instruction Partial Example
1. ambitious—really wanting to succeed at something
3. Susan's ambition to become an Olympic high jumper was so strong
that she was willing to practice six hours a day.
3. Rupert had never been an ambitious person, and after his accident
he did little other than watch television.
4. Would you like to have a really ambitious person as a friend? Why
or why not?
4. Which of the following better demonstrates ambition? (a) A stock
broker gets up every day and goes to work. (b) A stock broker
stays late at work every day, trying to close as many deals as
possible before leaving.
4. How likely is it that an ambitious person is lethargic? How likely is
it than an ambitious person would be energetic?
5. Write a brief story showing an ambitious person.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
46
Frayer Method
1. Define the new concept.
2. Distinguish between the new concept and similar concepts it
might be confused with.
3. Give examples, and explain why they are examples.
4. Give non-examples, and explain why they are non-examples.
5. Present students with examples and non-examples, and ask
students to distinguish between them.
6. Have students present examples and non-examples, explain
why they are one or the other, and provide feedback.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
47
Frayer Method Partial Example
1. A globe is a ball like model of planet.
2. A globe is different from a map because a map is flat.
3. The most common globe is a globe of the earth. A less
common globe is a globe of another planet like Mars.
4. A map of California. Directions about how to get to a friend’s
house.
5. A photograph of New York taken from an airplane.
A ball-shaped model of the moon.
6. [student-generated examples]
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
48
INTRODUCTORY INSTRUCTION
• Providing glossaries
• Using pictures
• Context/dictionary/discussion
• Context/relationship
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
49
Providing glossaries
Probably the least time-consuming and least intrusive thing you
can do to assist students with the vocabulary of selections they
are reading is to provide glossaries of important terms.
tsu-na-mi. A large wave that can occur after an underwater
earthquake
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
50
Using Pictures
Solar system. The nine
planets that revolve around
our sun make up our solar
system.
Someday it may be
possible for humans to
explore all the planets in
our solar system, but that
will not be soon.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
51
Context/Dictionary/Discussion Procedure
• Give students the word in a fairly rich context.
• For example, admire “We admire the paintings of great
artists at the museum.”
• Ask them to look it up in the dictionary.
• Discuss the definitions they come up with.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
52
Context-Relationship Procedure
Create a brief paragraph that uses the target word three or four times.
Follow the paragraph with a multiple-choice item that checks students’
understanding of the word.
1. Explain the purpose of the procedure.
2. Pronounce the word to be taught.
3. Read the paragraph in which the word appears.
4. Read the possible definitions, and ask students to choose the best
one.
5. Pause to give students time to check a definition, give them the
correct answer, and answer any questions they have.
6. Read the word and its definition a final time.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
53
Context-Relationship Procedure Example
Gathered
The children gathered eggs from the henhouse. Then they put
the eggs in a basket. Gathering eggs was something they did
every day when they visited their grandmother’s farm. Gathered
means that a person picks up and collects something.
Gathered means
A.
B.
C.
dropping things.
picking up things.
sharing ideas.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
54
MAJOR POINTS OF THE PRESENTATION
When it comes to teaching individual words, one size does not fit all
because
1. There are a variety of effective methods of teaching
individual words. I have classified these as Introductory
Methods and Rich and Powerful Methods.
2. There are so many words to teach that we cannot teach all of
them in depth.
3. There are various levels of work knowledge that we seek to
create in students.
4. There are various word learning tasks—learning a basic oral
vocabulary, learning to read known words, learning new
labels, learning new concepts, etc.
5. Both students and teachers need variety in instruction.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
55
Some Recent Vocabulary Books
Baumann & Kame'enui. (Eds.). (2004). Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice.
New York: Guilford.
Beck, McKeown, & Kucan. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary
instruction. New York: Guilford.
Biemiller. (in press). Words worth teaching. Columbus, OH: SRA/McGraw-Hill.
Hart & Risley. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young
American children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.
Hiebert & Kamil. (Eds.). (2005). Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing
research to practice. Mahway, NJ: Erlbaum.
Stahl & Nagy. (2006). Teaching word meanings. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Wagner, R. K., Muse, A. E., & Tannenbaum, K. R. (Eds.). (2007). Vocabulary
acquisition: Implications for reading comprehension: New York: Guilford.
Graves. (2006). The vocabulary book: Learning and instruction. New York:
Teachers College Press, IRA, and NCTE.
Graves. (in press). Teaching individual words: One size does not
fiit all. New York: Teachers College Press and IRA.
Mike Graves, Univ of Minn
56
References
Anderson, R. C., & Freebody, P. (1983). Reading comprehension and the assessment and acquisition of word knowledge. In
B. Hudson (Ed.), Advances in reading/language research (pp. 231-256). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Baumann, J. F., & Kame'enui, E. J. (Eds.). (2004). Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice. New York: Guilford.
Beck, McKeown, & Kucan. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford.
Blachowicz, C. L. Z., Fisher, P. J. L, Ogle, D., & Watts-Taffe, S. (2006). Vocabulary: Questions from the classroom. Reading
Research Quarterly, 41, 524-539.
Blachowicz, C. L. Z., & Obrochta, C. (2005). Vocabulary visits: Virtual field trips for content vocabulary development. The
Reading Teacher, 59, 262-268.
Biemiller, A. (in press). Words worth teaching. Columbus, OH: SRE/McGraw-Hill.
Biemiller, A. & Boote, C. (2006). An effective method for building meaning vocabulary in primary grades. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 98, 44 – 62.
Chall, J. S., & Dale, E. (1995). Readability revisited: The new Dale-Chall readability formula. Cambridge, MA: Brookline
Books.
Collins COBUILD new student’s dictionary (3rd ed., 2005). Glasglow, Scotland: HarperCollins.
Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 213-238.
Frayer, D. A., Frederick, W. D., & Klausmeier, H. J. (1969). A schema for testing the level of concept mastery (Working Paper
No. 16). Madison: Wisconsin Research and Development Center for Cognitive Learning.
Fry, E. B., & Kress, J. E. (2006). The reading teacher's book of lists (5th ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Graves, M. F. (2006). The vocabulary book: Learning and instruction. New York: Teachers College Press, IRA, and NCTE.
Graves, M. F. (2007). Conceptual and empirical bases for providing struggling readers with multi-faceted and long-term
vocabulary instruction. In B. M. Taylor & J. Ysseldyke (Eds.), Educational perspectives on struggling readers (pp. 55-83).
New York: Teachers College Press.
57
References
Graves, M. F. (in press). Teaching individual words: One size does not fit all. New York: Teachers College Press and IRA.
Graves, M. F., & Watts-Taffe, S. M. (2002). The place of word consciousness in a research-based vocabulary program. In S.
J. Samuels & A. E. Farstrup (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction (3rd ed., pp. 140-165). Newark,
DE: IRA.
Graves, M. F., & Watts-Taffe, S. M. (2007). Word consciousness comes of age. Unpublished paper.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young American children. Baltimore: P.
H. Brookes.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (2003, Spring). The early catastrophe: The 30 million word gap by age 3. American Educator, 27 (1),
4-9.
Heimlich, J. E., & Pittelman, S. D. (1986). Semantic mapping: Classroom applications. Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
Hiebert, E. H. (2005). In pursuit of an effective, efficient vocabulary curriculum for elementary students. In E. H. Hiebert & M.
L. Kamil (Eds.), Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice (pp. 243-263). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Heimlich, J. E., & Pittelman, S. D. (1986). Semantic mapping: Classroom applications. Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
Longman Study Dictionary of American English. (2006). Edinburgh Gate, UK: Pearson Education Limited.
Pittelman, S. D., Heimlich, J. E., Berglund, R. L., & French, M. P. (1991). Semantic feature analysis: Classroom applications.
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Sales, G. & Graves, M. F. (2007). The First 4,000 words. Grant funded by the U.S. Office of Education SBIR division of IES.
Stahl, S. A., & Nagy, W. E. (2006). Teaching word meanings. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
White, T.G., Slater, W.H., & Graves, M.F. (1989). Yes/No method of vocabulary assessment: Valid for whom and useful for
what? S. McCormick & J. Zutell (Eds.),Cognitive and social perspectives for literacy research and instruction (pp. 391398). Chicago: National Reading Conference.
58