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CHAPTER 11, COMPARATIVE AND HISTORICAL RESEARCH Chapter Outline Content Analysis Analyzing Existing Statistics Comparative and Historical Research Ethics and Unobtrusive Measures Quick Quiz Unobtrusive Research – Methods of studying social behavior without affecting it. Example: Types 1. 2. 3. Durkheim’s analysis of suicide of Unobtrusive Research Content Analysis Analysis of Existing Statistics Comparative and Historical Analysis Content Analysis Content Analysis – The study of recorded human communications (i.e., books, websites, paintings, laws). Appropriate “Who Topics says what, to whom, why, how, and with what effect?” Example: violence on TV 1. 2. 3. Develop operational definitions Decide what to observe Decide how to code/analyze data Figure 11.1 Sampling in Content Analysis Units of Analysis Identify the unit of analysis: You are interested in how children’s literature portrays gender roles. You are interested in popular film’s use of drugs and alcohol. You are interested in sociology textbook’s definition of race. You are interested in the content of Internet Blogs. Figure 11.2 Sampling Any Techniques conventional sampling technique may be used for content analysis. Coding in Content Analysis Coding – The process whereby raw data are transformed into standardized form suitable for machine processing and analysis. Manifest Content – The concrete terms contained in a communication. Latent Content – The underlying meaning of communication. Figure 11.3 Conceptualization Categories and the Creation of Code Operational Definition Levels of Measurement Counting The and Record Keeping end product of coding must be numerical. Record keeping must distinguish between units of analysis and units of observation. Record from the base from which the counting is done. Figure 11.4 Qualitative “Negative Tips 1. 2. 3. 4. Data Analysis Case Testing” for Avoiding Dangers Select cases at random Provide at least three supporting examples Ask others to review interpretations Report inconsistencies Illustrations of Content Analysis Strengths of Content Analysis Economy of time and money Allowing for the correction of errors Permits the study of processes occurring over time Research has little (if any) effect on subjects Reliability Weaknesses of Content Analysis Limited to recorded communications Validity Analyzing Existing Statistics The analysis of existing statistics is not the same as secondary analysis. Existing statistics may be the main source of data or a supplemental source of data. Example: Durkheim’s Study of Suicide Example: Kentor’s Consequences of Globalization Units of Analysis By nature, existing statistics describe groups. Ecological Fallacy Problems of Validity Logical Reasoning Replication Problems of Reliability Quality of Existing Statistics Sources of Existing Statistics Statistical Abstract of the United States Government Data Demographic Yearbook SINET Comparative and Historical Research Comparative and Historical Research – The examination of societies (or other social units) over time and in comparison with one another. Examples of Comparative and Historical Research Weber and the Role of Ideas Japanese Religion and Capitalism Sources of Comparative and Historical Data Figure 11.5 Analytic Techniques Quick Quiz 1. Which type of research does not require the researcher to intrude on what s/he is studying? A. Quantitative Research B. Qualitative Research C. Survey Research D. Unobtrusive Research Answer: D. Unobtrusive research does not require the researcher to intrude on what s/he is studying? 2. A. B. C. D. Which of the following may examined in content analysis? books magazines websites all of the above be Answer: D. Books, magazines, and websites may be examined in content analysis. 3. Which of the following occurs when you obtain a copy of someone else’s data and undertake your own statistical analysis? A. using quasi official statistics B. using official statistics C. secondary analysis D. none of the above Answer: C. Secondary analysis occurs when you obtain a copy of someone else’s data and undertake your own statistical analysis. 4. Which of the following are types of unobtrusive research methods? A. content analysis B. analysis of existing statistics C. comparative and historical research D. all of the above Answer: D. Content analysis, analysis of existing statistics, and comparative and historical research are types of unobtrusive research methods. 5. Which of the following are usually qualitative? A. field research B. comparative and historical research C. both of the above D. none of the above Answer: C. Field research and comparative and historical research are usually qualitative. 6. _____ are the individual units that we make descriptive and explanatory statements about. A. Units of analysis B. Artifacts C. Groups D. all of the above Answer: A. Units of analysis are the individual units that we make descriptive and explanatory statements about. 7. In the content analysis of _____, sampling may occur at any or all of several levels. A. written prose B. television C. the Internet Answer: A. In the content analysis of written prose sampling may occur at any or all of several levels. 8. Existing statistics should always be considered a _____ source of data. A. primary B. supplemental C. tertiary D. all of the above E. none of the above Answer: B. Existing statistics should always be considered a supplemental source of data. 9. When we base research on an analysis of data that already exist, we face problems of: A. repeatability. B. validity. C. generalization. Answer: B. When we base research on an analysis of data that already exist, we face problems of validity.