Transcript Nonproliferation and Arms Control Division Tutorial

Nonproliferation &
Arms Control Division
Tutorial
Institute of Nuclear Materials Management
Email [email protected]
Introduction:
Welcome to the Tutorial
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Welcome to the tutorial prepared by the Nonproliferation and
Arms Control Division of the Institute of Nuclear Materials
Management (INMM). This tutorial has been designed to provide
a basic understanding of the substance and activities concerning
nonproliferation and arms control as they relate to nuclear
materials management.
Nuclear Materials Management is the act, manner or practice
of managing, handling, supervising, and/or controlling nuclear
material and other related nuclear scientific technology and
knowledge.
•In order to access the hyperlinks, please view in slide show mode
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Contents
Proliferation, Nonproliferation & Arms Control
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International Legal Agreements
International Political Agreements
International Bodies
Helpful Resources
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Proliferation & Nonproliferation
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With respect to the field of nuclear materials
management:
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Proliferation refers to the spread of nuclear,
chemical, and/or biological weapons, also known as
weapons of mass destruction (WMD), including
associated delivery systems and scientific know-how,
to nations or non-state actors not already in
possession of such capabilities.
Nonproliferation refers to the action or practice of
preventing and/or limiting the spread of weapons of
mass destruction.
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Arms Control
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Arms control is any multilateral or unilateral
measure taken to reduce or control a weapons
arsenal. This includes treaties, agreements,
understandings, and/or multilateral
commitments.
A distinction…..
While nonproliferation is intended to prevent the
spread of weapons of mass destruction, arms
control is intended to reduce or limit existing
arsenals.
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The Origin and Development of
Nonproliferation and Arms Control
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Contents
After the world witnessed the unimaginable destruction
caused by the first nuclear attack, it became clear that
nuclear weapons would drastically alter global power and
security. Nuclear capability became synonymous with state
identity, global respect, and pride. The United States and
Russia raced to create the largest and most modern nuclear
arsenals. As the arsenals of these two countries rapidly
increased, reaching astronomical levels at the height of the
Cold War, it was apparent that legal and political controls
were needed to prevent the potentially destructive
consequences of global proliferation and to establish limits on
arsenal levels. A complex international nonproliferation
regime, consisting of bilateral and multilateral legal and
political agreements and international bodies, was created.
Today, with the threats of terrorism and nuclear acquisition
by rogue states, nonproliferation and arms control efforts
remain crucial to international security.
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International Legal Agreements
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1922: Conference on the Limitation of Armament
1968: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
1969-1972: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I)
1972: Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention (BTWC)
1972: Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM)
1972-1986: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II)
1987: Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF)
1991: Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I)
1993: Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II)
1993: Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
1996: Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
2002: Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT)
2004: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540
2010: New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START)
Proposed: Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty (FMCT)
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•New
START
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Conference on the Limitation of Armament
(1922)
• Also known as the Washington Naval Treaty
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• Involved the U.S., British Empire, France, Italy,
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Japan
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st modern arms control policy between world
•
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powers
• Put restrictions on each country’s armament,
including:
• Number and caliber of armaments
• Tonnage for each naval vessel
• Number of vessels of each type
• The failure of this treaty contributed to the start of
WWII
• Additional information: Treaty text
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Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT)
(1968)
• The foremost nonproliferation treaty
• All but 4 countries have joined: India, Israel, Pakistan, North
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Korea (withdrew in 2003)
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• Aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons to additional
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states, while still allowing for access to peaceful nuclear
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technology under international safeguards
• Grand Bargain: Non-nuclear weapons states promise not to
develop nuclear weapons, and in exchange, declared nuclear
weapons states provide the benefits of nuclear technology to nonnuclear weapons states and commit to nuclear disarmament.
• Elements of the treaty:
• Forbids non-nuclear member states from developing nuclear
weapons
• Forbids the 5 declared nuclear states from transferring the
technology to other states
• Provides for international safeguards
• Commits member states to pursue good faith negotiations towards
achieving disarmament
• Additional information: NPT Tutorial
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The NPT in context…
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Legal
Agreements
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Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I)
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Contents
Legal
Agreements
• Took place between the U.S. and the Soviet Union
between 1969 and 1972
• Result of the talks:
• The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM)
• Interim Agreement on strategic offensive arms
• 5 year duration
• This agreement was replaced by SALT II
• Additional information:
• SALT I narrative
• Interim Agreement
• ABM
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Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) (1972)
• Between the United States and the Soviet Union
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• Primarily concerned with maintaining the nuclear
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deterrent status quo
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• Restricted ballistic missile defense systems to 2 for
Agreements
each country
• One to protect each country’s capitol city
• One inter-continental ballistic missile (ICBM) launch
area of choice
• The United States withdrew from this treaty in
2002
• Additional information: Narrative and Treaty text
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Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention
(BTWC) (1972)
st multilateral disarmament treaty banning
•
The
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an entire category of weapons
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• Prohibits the development, production,
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acquisition, transfer, retention, stockpiling and/or
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use of biological and toxic weapons
• The Treaty has no enforcement regime
• Additional information: BTWC Website
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Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II)
• 2nd round of talks between the U.S. and the Soviet
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Union
• Took place between 1972 and 1986
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• Attempted to replace the Interim Agreement from
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Agreements
SALT I with a more comprehensive, long-term
treaty that placed limits on strategic offensive
arms
• An agreement was signed in 1979, but was never
ratified and therefore never entered into force
• While both nations complied with the provisions of
SALT II until 1986, the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan in 1980 caused the eventual failure of
the talks.
• Additional information: SALT II
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Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty
(INF) (1987)
• Between the United States and the Soviet Union
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• Required the elimination of all U.S. and Soviet
short-range and intermediate range (300-3400
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miles) nuclear and conventional ground-launched
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ballistic and cruise missiles
Agreements
• Also provided for rigorous verification and
inspection provisions
• In February 2007, President Putin declared that the
INF no longer serves the interests of Russia. This
was largely in reaction to the proposal of the United
States to place part of a missile defense system in
Poland and the Czech Republic. Russia has
threatened to withdraw from the Treaty but has yet
to do so
• Additional information: INF
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Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I)
(1991)
• Bilateral agreement between the United States
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and the Soviet Union (Note: after the Soviet Union
dissolved in December 1991, START applied to
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four former Soviet states – Russia, Ukraine,
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Belarus and Kazakhstan)
Agreements
• It provided for “deep reductions” in strategic
offensive nuclear arms with equal limits for both
countries
• It also included extensive verification provisions
• In December 2001, the United States and Russia
successfully reached the required levels of 6000
deployed warheads.
• START I expired in December of 2009
• Additional information: START I and NEW START
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Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II)
(1993)
• START II was a bilateral treaty between the
United States and the Russian Federation that
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was abandoned by both sides before coming into
force.
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• Further reduced limits on strategic nuclear arms
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Agreements
to no more than 3000-3500 warheads
• Included a clause calling for the elimination of all
land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles
(ICBMs) outfitted with multiple independentlytargetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs)
• The United States’ withdrawal from the ABM
Treaty in 2002 prompted the Russian government
to declare that they are no longer bound by their
signature on START II and its associated
protocols.
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• Additional information: START I
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) (1993)
• Bans the development, production, stockpiling,
transfer and use of chemical weapons, as well as
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stipulating their timely destruction.
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• Created the Organization for the Prohibition of
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Chemical Weapons (OPCW) for verification
purposes
• Additional information: CWC
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Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
(CTBT) (1996)
• This treaty was opened for signature in 1996, but
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has still not entered into force due to the lack of
the required number of ratifications. The United
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States has signed, but not ratified the CTBT.
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Agreements • Basic provisions:
• Not to carry out any nuclear explosion
• Not to encourage other states to carry out nuclear
explosions
• There are still nine countries which need to ratify
for the entry into force of the Treaty: India,
Pakistan, Israel, Egypt, the United States, the
Democratic Peoples’ Republic of Korea, Iran,
China, Indonesia (the latter has announced its
intention to ratify). The US is broadly seen as the
linchpin needed to start the chain of ratifications.
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Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty
(SORT) (2002)
• Bilateral agreement between the United States
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and Russia
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• Reduces limits on strategic nuclear warheads to
1700-2200 for each state
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Agreements
• Implementation deadline: December 31, 2012
• Additional information: SORT
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United Nations Security Council
Resolution 1540 (UNSCR 1540)
• Adopted by the UN Security Council in April 2004
• Three main provisions:
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• Prohibition on supporting non-state actors in developing,
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acquiring, possessing, transporting, transferring or using
nuclear, biological or chemical weapons and their means of
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delivery
Agreements
• Requirement that states implement domestic legislation that
helps to ensure the previous provision
• Requirement that states implement domestic controls to
prevent the proliferation of nuclear, chemical or biological
weapons and their means of delivery, including the controls on
related materials
• Created the 1540 Committee to monitor compliance
• 1540 has been extended twice:
• Resolution 1673 (2006)
• Resolution 1810 (2008)
• Additional information: 1540 Committee Website
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United Nations Security Council
Resolution 1887 (2009)
• Was passed by heads of state to create a safer
world for all, and to create the conditions for a
world without nuclear weapons in accordance with
the goals of the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of
Nuclear Weapons (NPT)
• UNSCR 1887 promotes international stability, and
is based on the principle of undiminished security
for all.
• Was voted in favor of unanimously (Libya was not
present)
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New START (2010)
• Between the United States and Russia
• Aimed at increasing transparency, predictability and
stability, and at improving the political relationship between
the countries.
• This treaty is a step toward fulfillment of disarmament
obligations under the NPT (Article VI)
• Missile defense is only included in the preamble
• Verification includes onsite inspections, data exchanges, and
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use of national technical means
•Home
• Aggregate limits for each side include
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- 1,550 warheads (deployed on ICBMs and SLBMs)
- 800 deployed and non-deployed ICBM/SLBM launchers
and heavy bombers
- 700 deployed ICBMs, deployed SLBMs, and deployed
heavy bombers
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Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty (FMCT)
• This is a proposed multilateral treaty – it does not
exist and is not in force
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• Proposes a ban on the production of fissile
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material for nuclear weapons or nuclear explosive
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devices.
Agreements
• Some states believe it should also cover existing
stockpiles of fissile material
• The rule of consensus at the
Conference on Disarmament allows any state to
block negotiations. Currently Pakistan has
blocked negotiations due to the issue of existing
stocks.
• Additional information: FMCT
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References:
International Legal Agreements
Conference on the Limitation of Armament
http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pre-war/1922/
nav_lim.html
NPT
http://www.nti.org/h_learnmore/npttutorial/
index.html
http://www.state.gov/t/isn/trty/16281.htm
SALT I
http://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/5191.htm
START II
http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/start2/index.html
http://www.nti.org/f_wmd411/f1b2_2.html
http://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/start2chron.asp
CWC
http://www.opcw.org/
http://www.un.org/Depts/dda/WMD/cwc
ABM
http://www.state.gov/t/isn/trty/16332.htm
http://www.state.gov/t/ac/rls/fs/2001/6848.htm
CTBT
http://www.ctbto.org/
http://www.nti.org/e_research/e3_9a.html
http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/RL33548.pdf
BTWC
http://www.opbw.org/
SORT
http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/05/20020524-3.html
SALT II
http://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/5195.htm
INF
http://www.state.gov/t/isn/trty/18432.htm
START I
http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/start1/index.html
UNSCR 1887
http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2009/sc9746.doc.htm
UNSCR 1540
http://disarmament2.un.org/Committee1540/
FMCT
http://www.nti.org/e_research/cnwm/ending/fmct.asp
New START
http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/key-facts-about-new-starttreaty
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Home Contents
International Political Agreements
United States and Russia
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• Cooperative Threat
Reduction (CTR)
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• Megatons to Megawatts
Global Agreements
• International Safeguards
• International State Systems for
Accounting and Control Advisory
Service (ISSAS)
• Nuclear Material Protection, • IAEA International Physical
Protection Advisory Service
Control and Accounting
(IPPAS)
(MPC&A)
• Export Control
• Second Line of Defense (SLD)
• Missile Technology Control
Regime (MTCR)
• Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones
(NWFZ)
• Proliferation Security Initiative
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(PSI)
U.S./Russia:
Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR)
• Operated jointly by the U.S. Department of Defense,
Department of Energy, Department of State and
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Department of Commerce
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• Provides assistance to the new independent states (NIS) of
Political
the former Soviet Union in the securing of their nuclear
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weapons, weapons-usable materials and delivery systems
• Assists NIS in dismantling nuclear warheads and their
delivery systems
• Additional information: CTR
• Due to expire in 2013
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U.S./Russia:
Megatons to Megawatts
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Political
Agreements
• Commercially financed, government-industry
partnership between the U.S. and Russia
• Weapons-grade uranium (HEU) from dismantled
Russian warheads is converted into low-enriched
uranium (LEU) which is then used to fuel
American nuclear power plants
• As of June 2010:
• 391 metric tons of HEU has been converted into 11,288
metric tons of LEU
• 15,633 nuclear warheads eliminated
• Additional information: Megatons Website; HEU
to LEU step-by-step
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U.S./Russia:
Material Protection, Control and Accounting (MPC&A)
• Originally part of the CTR, now operated by the Department
of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration
Home
(NNSA) in association with various U.S. National
Laboratories
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• Aims to reduce the threat of nuclear terrorism by working
with the Russian government to secure nuclear weapons and
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Agreements materials at sites throughout Russia and the former Soviet
states
• The U.S. currently funds security upgrades, training and
operating costs at these sites, but is working on sustaining
the program and transferring responsibility to the Russians
by 2013.
• Additional information: NNSA NA-25
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MPC&A Sites
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Global:
International Safeguards
• These safeguards work to detect the diversion of
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nuclear materials from use in peaceful activities to
use in the manufacturing of nuclear weapons
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• For detailed information, please refer to the
Political
INMM International Safeguards Division Tutorial
Agreements
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Global:
International State Systems for Accounting and Control
Advisory Service (ISSAS)
• IAEA program that provides assistance to Member
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States in strengthening their state nuclear
material accounting and control systems
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• Support is offered to any country that has nuclear
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materials or facilities
Agreements
• ISSAS missions compare the systems in place in
each Member State with the requirements in
international safeguards agreements and practices
in other countries
• Additional information: IAEA Promoting Nuclear
Security
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Global:
International Physical Protection Advisory Service
(IPPAS)
• An IAEA program in existence since 1995
Home
• Assists Member States in the improvement of the
Contents
physical protection of their nuclear facilities and
materials
Political
Agreements • At the request of a Member State, the IAEA will
assemble an expert team to analyze the physical
protection programs of the State, compare it to
international best practices and make
recommendations for improvement
• Additional information: IAEA IPPAS Guidelines
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Global:
Export Control
• Regulations put in place by governments to control the
movement between countries of items, including technology, that
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could be used in the production of nuclear weapons
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• The goal is to prevent the proliferation of nuclear goods and
technology to states and persons who should not have them, and
Political
Agreements to prevent dual-use goods intended for peaceful purposes from
being used to make nuclear weapons.
• Each government has its own export control regime. In the
United States, export controls are maintained and enforced by
various executive branch agencies: Departments of State,
Commerce, Defense, Homeland Security, Energy, Treasury and
the Nuclear Regulatory Commission
• Multilateral regimes also exist to facilitate cooperation between
countries. These include: Nuclear Suppliers Group, Zangger
Committee, Missile Technology Control Regime
• For additional information: Export Control
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Global:
Second Line of Defense (SLD)
Operated by the US Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration
SLD Core Program
Megaports Initiative
• Provides security upgrades at • Installs and maintains
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worldwide borders and
monitoring and detection
crossings points to prevent the
equipment at seaports
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around the world to
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radiological materials.
prevent illicit trafficking in
nuclear and radiological
• Upgrades include fixed and
materials
handheld monitoring and
detection equipment,
• Additional Information:
personnel training and
NNSA SLD & Megaports
communication tools
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Global:
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)
• A voluntary organization of 34 countries whose
Home
goal is to prevent the proliferation of delivery
systems capable of carrying chemical, biological or
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nuclear weapons
Political
Agreements • The MTCR is based on adherence to a set of export
licensing guidelines applied to unmanned delivery
systems and related materials and technology
• Additional information: MTCR
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Global:
Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones (NWFZ)
•
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•
•
Political
•
Agreements
A NWFZ is a group of countries who agree not to develop, manufacture,
stockpile, acquire or possess any nuclear explosive device within the zone.
In exchange, declared nuclear weapons states promise not to use nuclear
weapons against NWFZ countries (However, declared nuclear countries can
make declarations in NWFZ agreements outlining certain instances when
they could use nuclear weapons against a NWFZ state)
The right of countries to form NWFZs is affirmed by Article 7 of the Nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones:
•
•
•
•
Latin America/Caribbean: Treaty of Tlatelolco
South Pacific: Treaty of Rarotonga
Southeast Asia: Treaty of Bangkok
Africa: Treaty of Pelindaba (This treaty entered into force with
the ratification of Burundi in 2009)
• Central Asia: CANWFZ (entered into force with the
ratification of Kazakhstan in 2009)
• Mongolia has declared itself a NWFZ and this is recognized by
the UN; New Zealand is seeking official NWFZ status
• In addition, the Seabed Treaty, Antarctic Treaty, Outer Space
Treaty and Moon Agreement establish NWFZ’s
• Additional information: NWFZ Tutorial
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Map of Nuclear-Weapons-Free Zones
Home
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Political
Agreements
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Global:
Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI)
• Established by the Bush Administration in 2003 with 10 other
countries; the U.S. State Department now states that over 70
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countries support the program
Contents • Multinational effort to combat the proliferation of nuclear
materials worldwide through interdiction
• PSI is an activity designed to build a web of global partnerships
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through which proliferators will have a difficult time illicitly
trafficking nuclear materials
• PSI partners work to develop new methods of WMD interdiction
and rigorously apply established methods of interdiction at sea,
in the air, and on land
• Approaches to interdiction:
• States review their own legal authorities to ensure they can take
action and examine ways to strengthen domestic laws
• Ship-boarding agreements between states are put in place
• Multinational interdiction
exercises
• Additional information: PSI
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References:
International Political Agreements
CTR
http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/ctr/index.html
http://www.nti.org/db/nisprofs/russia/forasst/nunn_l
ug/overview.htm
ISSAS
http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheet
s/English/nuclsecurity.pdf
http://www-ns.iaea.org/security/prevention.htm
Megatons to Megawatts
http://www.usec.com/v2001_02/HTML/megatons.asp
http://www.usec.com/v2001_02/HTML/megatons_ste
pbystep.asp
http://www.usec.com/megatonstomegawatts.htm
IPPAS
http://www.iaea.org/OurWork/SS/Protection/for
eword.html
MPC&A
http://www.nti.org/db/nisprofs/russia/fulltext/doe_m
pca/doe2000/mpca00en.htm
http://www.nnsa.doe.gov/na-20/na25_index.shtml
International Safeguards
http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcirc
s/1998/infcirc540corrected.pdf
PSI
http://www.state.gov/t/np/c10390.htm
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SLD
http://www.nnsa.doe.gov/na-20/sld.shtml
http://www.nnsa.doe.gov/na20/na25_index.shtml
MTCR
http://www.mtcr.info/english/index.html
NWFZ
http://cns.miis.edu/stories/images/NWFZ_M
ap_small.gif
http://www.nti.org/h_learnmore/nwfztutorial/in
dex.html
http://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/nwfz.asp
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International Bodies
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•
•
•
•
•
•
United Nations (UN)
United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Zangger Committee
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)
Conference on Disarmament (CD)
G-8 Global Partnership
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United Nations (UN)
Home
Contents
Bodies
• International organization founded in 1945
• Consists of 192 Member States
• Aims to promote peace and security, develop and
maintain friendly relations among countries, and
promote social progress and human rights
• The UN and Nonproliferation & Arms Control
• Provides a forum for international
negotiations
• Can impose sanctions on countries for
violating international standards and laws
• Formulates resolutions for action
• Additional information: UN
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United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
Home
Contents
Bodies
• Permanent members: United States, United
Kingdom, France, China, Russia; also 10 nonpermanent members that serve 2 year terms
• Non-Proliferation and Arms Control functions:
• Investigates situations that may cause international
friction and can recommend solutions
• Can impose sanctions on aggressor states
• Can take military action on an aggressor
• Formulates resolutions for
action
• Additional information:
UNSC
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International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Home
Contents
Bodies
• Established in 1957 as the “Atoms for Peace”
organization in the UN, but now an independent
international organization
• Works with its 144 Member States to promote the
safe, secure and peaceful use of nuclear technology
• 3 main pillars of work:
• Safeguards and verification
• Safety and security
• Science and technology
• Additional information:
IAEA
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Zangger Committee
Home
Contents
Bodies
• Formed with the coming into force of the NPT
• Also known as the “NPT Exporters Committee”
• Focuses on interpreting the export control
guidelines in Article 3, paragraph 2 of the NPT
• Article 3.2 essentially states that all Parties to the
NPT should not export nuclear equipment and/or
materials to non-nuclear-weapon states unless the
export is subject to IAEA safeguards
• Additional information: Zangger Committee
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Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)
Home
Contents
Bodies
• Established in 1974 after India, a non-nuclear
state, conducted its first detonation of a nuclear
device, demonstrating to the world that the
peaceful transfer of nuclear technology could be
misused
• A group of 45 nuclear supplier countries
• Aims to prevent nuclear proliferation by
establishing export control guidelines and
incorporating those guidelines into the domestic
laws of each Member State
• Additional information: NSG
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Conference on Disarmament (CD)
Home
Contents
Bodies
• Established in 1979 as the single multilateral
disarmament negotiation forum of the
international community
• 65 Member States
• Current issues:
• Forming international agreements to promote nuclear
disarmament and arms control
• Prevention of nuclear war
• Nuclear disarmament and
nonproliferation
• Transparency
• Negotiations deadlocked
for 12+ years
• Additional information:
CD
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G8 Global Partnership
•
Home
Contents
Bodies
•
•
•
•
•
An informal partnership of the Heads of State of eight major countries:
France, Germany, United States, United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, Canada,
Russia
These leaders meet annually to discuss global concerns and formulate
solutions
At the G8 Summit in Kananaskis, Canada in 2002, the leaders established
the “G8 Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons and Materials
of Mass Destruction.”
Under this initiative, the G8 supported cooperation projects aimed at
nonproliferation, disarmament, counter-terrorism and nuclear safety
The initiative, while still viewed favorably in 2010, has an uncertain
financial future. The program's widely anticipated renewal beyond its 2012
expiration date failed to materialize in 2010. Much depends on the state of
the world’s economy as the program approaches its end date.
Additional information:
Kananaskis Initiative
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References:
International Bodies
United Nations
http://www.un.org/
UNSC
http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/
Home
Contents
IAEA
http://www.iaea.org/
Zangger Committee
http://www.zanggercommittee.org/Zangger/default.htm
NSG
http://www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/default.htm
CD
http://www.unog.ch/80256EE600585943/(httpPages)/2D415EE45C5FAE07C12571800055232B?
OpenDocument
G-8 Global Partnership
http://www.g8.gc.ca/2002Kananaskis/kananaskis/globpart-en.asp
http://www.partnershipforglobalsecurity.org/PDFFrameset.asp?URL=http://www.globalsecurity
newswire.org/gsn/nw_20100815_3867.php
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A Helpful Resource…
Home
Contents
The following link connects you to a tutorial on
Weapons of Mass Destruction issues developed by
the Henry L. Stimson Center. It provides useful
additional information, some of which is not
contained in this tutorial.
Bombs, Bugs and Deadly Gases:
The WMD Reference Center
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The Brookings Institution
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
Center for Nonproliferation Studies
Center for Strategic and International Studies
Institute for Science and International Security
Nuclear Threat Initiative
Partnership for Global Security
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