Political Forces in the 1920s:

The Weimar Republic Fascism in Italy

Interwar period

• Period of great contradictions – Period of artistic experimentation, foundations of modernity in art and architecture – Brief era of prosperity followed by deep depression – Period in which some of 20 th centuries most horrendous regimes established

Germany: the Weimar Republic

• A Republic without Republicans? • Besieged with economic problems, fragile political support – • challenges from revolutionaries on left, nationalists on right • At best contingent support from key groups in German society • Interplay between international issues (Reparations, the peace settlement and domestic politics)

Origins

• Collapse of German War effort in 1918 • Republic proclaimed following Kaiser’s abdication • Constitution drafted in 1919 in east German city of Weimar

Political forces

• Extreme left: – Communists committed to violent revolution • Left: – Social Democrats, committed to economic change, redistribution of wealth – increasingly part of system • Centre: – Christian Democrats, • Right: – Liberals – Conservatives – Nationalists • Extreme right: opponents of liberal democracy

Bases of support

• Pro-system: the ‘Weimar parties:’ – Social Democrats (SPD) – Catholics (Centre Party) – Liberals (DVP, DP) • Republic opposed or at best tolerated by – military – civil service – Judiciary – upper classes

Changes over time

• Initially, ‘Weimar parties’ enjoy strong support; – But challenged from left and right: revolutionaries, free corps, militias….

• Support narrows as early as 1920 – Communists and independent Socialists gain on the left (20%) – Nationalists gain on the right (33%) • Further narrowing in 1925 – Hindenburg elected president

Three periods:

• 1918-1923 -- Shaky start • 1924-1929 -- Normalcy • 1929-1933 -- Great Depression and demise

1918-1923

• Problems of revolts from right and left – Eventual suppression • 1923 Ruhr crisis: – France & Belgium occupy in order to extract reparations – Workers strike – with approval of German government • Inflation and hyper-inflation: money printed to cover costs

Reparations conundrum

• Dawes plan (1924): – Rescheduling of reparations payments – make them manageable – U.S. loans to Germany • Enable Germany to make payments to France • Enabling France to repay U.S.

1924-1929

• Stabilization of currency • Attempts to make Weimar work: – Broader coalition: centre-right parties such as DVP join • Period of relative success: – Political stabilization – Accommodations reached with neighboring countries (Locarno Pact)

1929-1933

• US Stock Market Crash • German dependence on American loans results in shutdowns, mass unemployment • Extreme parties – right and left – gain support • Inability to sustain cabinets – successive elections – presidential intervention – growth of support for Nazism

Fascism in Italy

Origins

• Short term: – Italian disappointments in the peace settlements, especially failure to obtain Fiume, Dalmatian coast • Longer term: – Class, religious, regional divisions – Incompleteness of Italian unification in 1860s, 1870s – Weakness & ineffectiveness of the regime

Mussolini

• Former socialist • Breaks with his party over support for World War I • Demagogic speaker • Leader of

squadristi

– squads of thugs, blackshirts

Coming to power

• Ongoing government crisis, widespread social unrest, weak government during World War I • 1921: fascists elected to parliament • 1922: March on Rome: – Indecisive King, fearing army unreliable, invites Mussolini to form of government

Consolidating the regime:

• Mussolini uses control of government to establish dictatorship – Modification of electoral law – Successive elimination of opponents – Suppression of independent forces

Building support:

• Mussolini builds support by modifying positions, accommodating key groups – Gains support of business by restricting unions – Gains support of Church by • abandoning anti-clerical positions • embracing Catholicism, • concluding Lateran pacts

The Fascist Regime

• Evolving type • Glorification of nation/ leader • Ostensible dispersion of power to ‘independent’ corporations running different segments of the economy • Emphasis both on resolving conflicts and use of terror to marginalize opponents