Transcript The Design of Genetic Variability

Genetic Variability
by Design
Chris Ashcraft
Northwest Creation Network
NWcreation.net
Evolution vs. Creation
 Evolutionists say that
genetic information
accumulates gradually
over time by random
mutagenesis.
 Creationists say that God
created all genes in the
beginning. “No New Genetic
Information” is a popular
argument against evolution.
Seminar Content
Organisms were created with
the ability to change (evolve).
How is this accomplished
genetically?
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Terminology
Problems with Theories
Mechanisms Involved
Genetic Variability
Evidence of Design
Cell = Microscopic Factory
All living organisms are
composed of one or more
microscopic cells.
Human Dendritic Cell
(Immunity Sentinel)
DNA = Information
• Chromosomes - long
strands of DNA that
contain many genes.
• Genes - codes that tell the
cell’s machinery how to
make protein.
• Proteins - the organic
machinery and material
that make life happen.
46 Human Chromosomes
Approx 2.0 Meters per Cell
Genetic Code
 DNA is coded instructions on
how to make protein.
 3 nucleotides comprise a
coding unit called a codon,
which specifies the amino
acid used in the protein.
Codon - Amino Acid
UGC = Cystein
CUG = Leucine
AGU = Serine
GCA = Alanine
"The gene is by far the most sophisticated program around.”
- Bill Gates, Business Week, June 27, 1994
Evolution Before Genetics
 Charles Darwin’s The Origin
of Species was published in
1859 theorizing that
variations in nature were
randomly inherited.
 Gregor Mendel established
Charles Darwin
the basis for modern
genetics in 1900 showing
that variety was produced in
predictable patterns.
Gregor Mendel
The Foundation of Genetics
Parental Cross
F1 Hybrid
F2 Phenotypes
F2 Ratio
================================================================
Round X Wrinkled Seed
Round
5474 Round :1850 Wrinkled
2.96 : 1
Yellow X Green Seeds
Yellow
6022 Yellow : 2001 Green
3.01 : 1
Red X White Flowers
Red
705 Red : 224 White
3.15 : 1
Tall X Dwarf Plants
Tall
1787 Tall : 227 Dwarf
2.84 : 1
Mendel’s Conclusions
 Traits are inherited as distinct units. (Genes)
 Sexually reproducing organisms have a pair of units for
each trait. (Alleles). Trait variation exist in a population
because genes are present in more than one form.
 Pure Breeds have an identical pair of alleles (Homozygote)
and pass the specific trait to every offspring.
Canine History
Domestic breeding history provides evidence
for rapid production of variety.
Creation vs. Evolution?
Wolf possessed the
genetic variability
used to generate the
dog breeds.
Is This True?
Implications of Breeding History
Pure Breed Wolf Pups
Genetic Homozygote
How was the variety in the dog breeds produced
from a genetically pure ancestor?
Genetic Bottleneck
Proof that genetic information accumulates rapidly comes from the
Biblical flood record. A single breeding pair for each “kind” was
reintroduced following the flood, and 7 pairs of each clean animal.
Only 8 people were on board the ark.
Locations of Genes (Locus)
The maximum number of
genes per locus at the time
of the flood is known.
 14 animals can only possess
28 genes per locus.
 8 people can only possess 16
genes per locus.
Today there are hundreds
and for some thousands of
genes per locus.
Sources of Gene Variability
• Mutation - Unintentional genetic
change resulting from errors or
exposure to mutagens.
• Recombination - Intentional
genetic change introduced by
cellular machinery.
• There is currently no method
available to determine which
source has altered genetic code.
DNA Helix
DNA Recombination
Recombination alters DNA
before cells divide to
generates offspring diversity.
The exact changes made
during these reactions remain
largely unknown.
Human Chromosomes
This is likely the time when
genes are edited to add new
information to the population.
Cell Division
Prior to cell division, the
chromosomes condense
and then recombine their
genetic information.
Homologous Recombination
Recombination occurs
between homologous
chromosomes.
Homologues possess
similar DNA and genes
for the same trait.
Homologous Chromosomes
Evolutionist Assumptions
• It is assumed that
recombination is simply
shuffling preexisting
genes, and changes to
genes are the result of
errors or other mutations.
Gene Crossover
Creationist Assumptions
"Recombination explains why children look
different from their parents. This shuffling of
the genes can produce superior combinations
of different genes. However, because we see
that mutations are incapable of supplying
useful variation, the useful genes that are there
to be shuffled must have been created at the
beginning." The History of Life. Lane P. Lester. Creation
Research Society Quarterly 31(2) 1994 p96
Typical Creationist Perspective
“No New Genetic Information”
Non Random Crossover
 Since their discovery and
use in genetic mapping,
crossing-over was assumed
to occur randomly along the
length of chromosomes
 Research has now shown
that crossing-over is not a
randomized process.
 Hotspots & coldspots
 Sex-specific differences.
 Meiosis vs. Mitosis
New Alleles by Recombination
Recombination within
genes can create new
alleles (gene varieties).
Any alteration found to
exist should be assumed
the result of these
reactions.
Homologous Recombination
A large group of reactions where a piece of
homologous (similar) DNA is used to edit another.
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Performed during meiosis to create offspring diversity.
Performed during mitosis to create cellular diversity.
Repairs several types of DNA damage.
Used to incorporate foreign DNA (genetic transformation).
Is induced by a wide variety of environmental stresses
such as nutrient deprivation, high cell density, and a great
many carcinogens.
 Is induced or shut off as a programmed cell function
during differentiation, and development.
Crossover vs. Gene Conversion
Gene conversion is a class of homologous recombination
that alters sequences on only one homologue using
template DNA called pseudo genes. This type of
recombination is used to creates new alleles.
Variable Genes
Many genes are hyper-variable or change
regularly from one generation to the next.
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More variable than neutral regions between genes.
Have distinct variable and invariable regions.
Frequently involved with inter-species contacts.
Antagonists of variable proteins are also variable.
Antibodies
A limited number of genes is able to produce a
virtual unlimited number of antibodies.
An antibody is specialized to label only 1 foreign substance.
Variable Antibody Genes
Repeated
rounds of gene
conversion alter
the variable
region of the
gene to develop
increased
specificity after
antigen binding.
(Maturity)
Human immunity is due to single base-pair substitutions,
found in 2002 to be from gene conversion.
Non-Random Immunity
Many Diseases have been
eliminated because everyone
inoculated develops antibodies.
 Small Pox - the last case was
reported in 1977 (World Health
Organization)
 Measles - eliminate in the US by
1999 (Center for Disease Control)
 Polio - eliminated in the US by
1979. From the world by 2005
(World Health Organization)
Random processes do not produce certain outcomes!
Major Histocompatibility Complex
 1999 - the human MHC loci
was sequenced.
 Gene conversion is now
known responsible for the
creation of new MHC alleles.
 MHC editions are not
random.
Alleles per MHC Locus
 The changes vary greatly from
one allele to the next.
 There are variable and
invariable regions
 Editions are localized to
specific areas that are rich in
CpG nucleotide dimers.
Cone Snail Toxins
 Protein toxins (venom)
show a high frequency of
genetic variability.
Snakes, Scorpions, etc.
 It has been estimated that
there are 100 unique
peptides toxins for each
Cone Snail species.
 50,000 are estimated in
Conotoxins block neural transmitters,
and used to medically treat disorders
the genus.
such as epilepsy.
Conotoxin Variability
 Cysteine codons were found
at specific positions that
remained conserved within
the most variable portion of
the gene.
C…C…CC…C…C
 Conotoxin genes are also
varied more often by
transversions rather than
transitional substitutions.
AT
TA
Some cone shells are highly valued
and worth upwards of $1000.
Genetic Warfare
Antagonists of variable genes
are also typically variable.
 Antitoxins - possessed by
typical prey are also found
to be highly variable.
 Antigens - parasitic
organisms alter their surface
proteins regularly to stay
ahead of immunity systems.
Environmental-Dependent Editing
• Genetic editions at times
occur as a direct response
to environmental stimulus
such as stress.
• Antibodies follow antigen
• SOS Response in Bacteria
• Heat Shock Protein in Flies
Thermus aquaticus was found in
Yellowstone Hotsprings surviving at
temperatures up to 176 degrees F.
Why Rely On Mutations?
 Evolutionary theory attempts to explain the origin of
genetic information by mechanisms other than
intentional creation.
 Purposeful genetic variability implies intelligent design,
and natural science is based on atheistic philosophy.
"Mutation is the ultimate source of all genetic
variation found in natural populations and the
only new material available for natural selection
to work on." Ernst Mayr. Populations, Species,
& Evolution. 1970, p.102
Natural Science is Atheistic
 A 1998 report in Nature states
that, "among the top natural
scientists, disbelief is greater
than ever; almost total".
 The biologists in the National
Academy of Science possess
the lowest rate of belief of all
the science disciplines, with
only 5.5% believing in God.
(20:1 ratio)
Nature Vol. 394:6691 (1998)
Genomic Variability
Genetic transformations are performed with regularity today,
and facilities designed for this purpose can be found on every
major university campus in the United States. Transformations
offer proof of the flexibility of the genome, and interspecies
gene transfer through homologous recombination (HR).
Prokaryote Genetic
Transformations
 Bacteria acquire new genes by
absorbing DNA molecules from their
surroundings. (HR)
 Stress induces bacterial to uptake
and incorporate DNA; starvation,
heat, salt, etc.
 The ability to deliberately transform
the bacterium E. coli has made
possible the cloning of many genes including human, and revolutionized
the biotechnology industry.
Eukaryote Genetic Transformation
 Anything that stresses the
cell membrane improves
the efficiency of genetic
transformation
 Biolistics - DNA coated gold
particles shot at cells using
high pressure delivery.
(22 caliber / gas)
 Cells will uptake and splice
the foreign DNA into their
genome through
homologous recombination.
Crown Gall Disease and
Natural Genetic Transformation
 Agrobacterium Tumerfaciens
genetically transforms plants
as a parasitic strategy.
 The Bacteria uses amino
acids called opines as food,
which it forces the plant to
produce.
 It also induces tumors to
multiply the number of opine
producing cells.
Natural Transformation
Agrobacterium Transformation
• A Tumor is induced
because the bacteria
transforms the plant with
genes that make plant
growth regulators.
• The genes or hormones
DNA Transfection
can not be used by the
bacteria, and were likely
stolen from plants.
Genetic Constructs
HindIII
NOSP
HindIII
SacI
BamHI
HrpN Full Length
NOSP
SS
NOST
SacI
BamHI
HrpN Full Length
EcoRI
pE58
EcoRI
NOST
pE60
(BglII/BamHI)
HindIII
SacI
BamHI
NOSP
SS
H8 HrpN Fragment
EcoRI
NOST
pE88
(BglII/BamHI)
Molecular biologists make genetic constructs using gene
fragments obtained from various organisms by cutting and
splicing them together. It is likely that the cell performs a
similar type of self genetic engineering.
Genetic Engineer
Agrobacteria has apparently constructed a plasmid that
contains acquired plant grown hormones, and may
demonstrate the application of recombination to use
foreign genes for new purposes.
Creation Science
Colossians 2:8 See to it that no one takes you
captive through hollow and deceptive
philosophy, which depends on human tradition
and the basic principles of this world rather
than on Christ.
Romans 1:20 For since the creation of the
world God's invisible qualities--his eternal
power and divine nature--have been clearly
seen, being understood from what has been
made, so that men are without excuse.
NWcreation.net
Diversity by Design
Because a limited amount of genetic information was introduced
following the flood, and millions of years were not involved in the
production of the vast quantity of alleles at each locus, new genetic
information is produced rapidly by intelligent design.
Plant Transformation Strategy
 Transfect tissue with
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selectable DNA
Grow tissue under
selection strategy
Isolate somatic embryos
Regenerate plant
Test to confirm presence of
foreign gene
Genetic transformation techniques have been used
to creation herbicide resistant crops (Roundupready), and insect resistant crops (BT), etc.