Transcript Vision Physiology and Laser Illumination of Pilots

Laser Illumination of
Pilots in the
National Airspace
System
Federal Aviation
Administration
Presented to: 2009 International Laser Safety
Conference
By:
Van B. Nakagawara, O.D.
Date:
March 23-26, 2009
Laser Illumination of Pilots in the NAS
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Federal Aviation
Administration
What is a Laser?
Light
Amplification by the
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation
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Lasers in Vision Care
The excimer lasers removes tissue
from the cornea’s internal layers.
Lasers demonstrations are
used to attract and
entertain the public at
special events, theme
parks, and casinos.
Defense Lasers
Other Outdoor Lasers
 Deep Space Communications
 Near-earth Object Imaging
 Astronomy
 Geographic Research
 Atmospheric Research
FAA Order 7400.2 Procedures for Handling
Airspace Matters, Part 6. Miscellaneous
Procedures, Chapter 29: Outdoor Laser
Operations.
FAA Laser Policy
Prior to 1995, the FAA policy limited laser
exposure within the Nominal Ocular Hazard
Distance (NOHD) in navigable airspace to less
than the Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE)
that can result in tissue damage.
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Exceeding the MPE (Maximum Permissible Exposure)
Wavelength Effects
<300 nm:
Corneal photokeratitis.
300 - 400 nm:
Photochemical UV cataract.
400 - 780 nm:
Photochemical and thermal retinal injury.
780 - 1400 nm: Cataract, retinal burns.
1400 - 3000 nm: Corneal burn, IR cataract.
>3000 nm:
Corneal burn.
NOTE: Optical gain of the eye is
about 105. In the retinal hazard
region (400 – 1400 nm),
irradiance of 1 mW/cm2 entering
the eye is increased to 100 W/cm2
at the retina.
< MPE Illumination & Temporary
Visual Impairment
• Glare – Obscuration of an object in a person's field of
vision due to a bright light source near the same line-of
sight (e.g., oncoming car headlights).
• Flashblindness – A visual interference effect that persists
after the source of illumination has ceased.
• Afterimage – A reverse contrast shadow image left in the
visual field after an exposure to a bright light that may
persist for several minutes.
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FDA Laser Regulation
Since 1976, the Food and Drug
Administration’s (FDA’s), Center for
Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH)
has regulated the manufacturers of all laser
devices sold in the U.S. under Title 21 CFR
Parts 1010 & 1040. These devices include
lasers used to conduct outdoor laser light
shows (demonstrations).
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CDRH Regulations
The manufacturer must certify that a laser
product’s performance meets applicable
CDRH performance standards and provide
labeling to indicate compliance and laser
hazard classification.
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FAA Involvement
In late 1995, the FAA received reports of 52
incidents of aircraft illuminations from laser
lights in or near Las Vegas. Of these, 11 incidents
resulted in temporary visual impairment of flight
crewmembers, and 24 took place during critical
phases of flight.
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NTSB Report # LAX96IA032:
A Southwest Airline’s First Officer (FO)
was visually incapacitated on departure
from Las Vegas. The captain assumed
control of the aircraft. The FO experienced
eye pain and was temporarily blinded in
the right eye. Inability to see lasted for 30
seconds (10/95).
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At the FAA’s request, the FDA issued a
moratorium ceasing all outdoor laser
activities in the Las Vegas area on Dec.
11, 1995. Government and laser
industry representatives met to develop
appropriate guidelines.
FAA Order 7400.2 was revised to establish
zones of navigable airspace around
airports to protect flight crewmembers
from temporary visual impairment during
critical flight operations.
Available online at:
http://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/air_traffic/publications/at_orders/media/AIR.pdf
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FAA Order 7400.2 FLIGHT ZONES
FAA Order 7400.2 FLIGHT ZONES
Potential Visual Effects
vary with Laser Power
and Distance from
Source
FAA Responsibilities:
• FAA Order 7400.2 requires the FAA to
conduct an aeronautical study for
purposed outdoor laser activities to
determine the potential effects upon
aircraft operations.
• FAA issues a letter of determination
(Objection or Non-Objection).
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Research was needed to validate the newly
established exposure limits were adequate
to ensure aviation safety for pilots in a
cockpit environment.
FAA/USAF
Flight Simulator Study
Effects of Laser Illumination on
Operational and Visual Performance
of Pilots Conducting Terminal
Operations
 34 Subjects
 12 Approach and 4
Departure Maneuvers
 Frequency Doubled Nd:YAG
(532 nm) Laser
 4 Levels of Laser Exposure
(included one zero level
exposure)
FAA 737 Flight Simulator
View of final approach to runway at 100 feet AGL
Kodak DC240, aperture f/2.8, shutter speed 1/6 s
Irradiance level: 0.5 µW/cm2
Simulates the effect of a 5 mW green laser
pointer as seen from 3,000 feet away, or a 300
mW laser from 16,000 feet away
Irradiance level: 5 µW/cm2
Simulates the effect of a 5 mW green laser
pointer as seen from 1,000 feet away, or a 300
mW laser from 6,700 feet away
Irradiance level: 50 µW/cm2
Simulates the effect of a 5 mW green laser
pointer as seen from 330 feet away, or a 300 mW
laser from 2,400 feet away
Results of the simulator study
indicated that the changes made to
FAA Order 7400.2 were adequate to
protect aviators from visual
impairment in the Critical and LaserFree Zones around airports.
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Office of Aerospace Medicine
Technical Reports
Available at: http://www.faa.gov/library/reports/medical/oamtechreports/index.cfm
Guidance for Laser Proponents and Regulatory
Personnel Include:
SAE Aerospace Recommended
Practice and Aerospace
Standard Reports
 ARP 5535 – Observers for Laser
Safety in the Navigable Airspace
 ARP 5572 – Control Measures
for Laser Safety in Navigable
Airspace
 AS 4970 – Human Factors
Considerations for Outdoor
Laser Operations in the
Navigable Airspace
American National Standards
Institute (ANSI):
 ANSI Z136.1- American National
Standard for Safe Use of Lasers
 ANSI Z136.6- American National
Standard for Safe Use of Lasers
Outdoors
International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO):
 SARP (Standard and Recommended
Practice)
 Manual on Laser Emitters and Flight
Safety
Laser Pointers – A New Dilemma
As incidents associated with laser displays
declined, the increased availability and
popularity of handheld lasers presented an
increasing threat to aviators. Between 1
January 2004 and 31 January 2005, there
were 90 reports of laser illumination. More
importantly, 93% occurred in the last 3
months of the study period.
In recent years, more powerful handheld
lasers have become affordable. Green
lasers are especially popular because they
can appear up to 35 times brighter than
some red laser pointers with similar
output power.
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Green laser pointers
are now responsible
for > 86% of aircraft
lazing incidents.
Their light (532 nm)
is near the human
eyes’ peak photopic
and scotopic
sensitivity.
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Laser Pointers on Steroids
Class 3B handheld lasers
are available on the Internet.
Within the NOHD, momentary
exposure (≤ 0.25 s) can cause
eye damage.
Wavelengths: 405, 473, 532, 635, 650 nm
Power output: 5 – 400 mW
Range: up to 20 miles
.
DOT Secretary Announces New Policy
On January 12, 2005, Secretary of Transportation, Norman
Mineta, announced the publication of a new Advisory Circular,
entitled “Reporting of Laser Illumination of Aircraft” (AC No: 7002).
Advisory Circular: AC 70-02
New FAA policy
(AC 70-02) was
established to
protect aircrews
and passengers,
improve reporting
and enforcement,
and to discourage
future laser
incidents.
Since Issuance of AC 70-02:
• The reporting process has improved,
• Communication and coordination
between local air traffic authorities and
law enforcement have been enhanced,
and
• Arrests of perpetrators have increased.
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The Frequency of Laser Incidents by Year
Aircraft & Cockpit Illuminations By Year
1600
1400
INCIDENTS
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
TOTAL
COCKPIT
29
179
259
472
939
AIRCRAFT
46
348
451
687
1532
Reports of illumination incidents for both the aircraft and,
more importantly, the cockpit, have increased dramatically
from 2004 through 2007.
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Dec. 29, 2004 - A New Jersey man was
charged under federal Patriot Act antiterrorism laws (fines up to $500,000 and/or
25 years in prison) after he allegedly shone
a green laser pointer at a commuter aircraft
from about 4,100 feet. Charges were later
reduced to lying to a federal agent.
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August 15, 2007 - The FBI arrested a 47-YO man
from Clint (TX) for shining a laser at commercial
airplanes. The confiscated device was a Class 3B
laser about the size of a flashlight. The FBI
believed he may be connected to three similar
illumination incidents. The suspect could have
faced up to 20 years in prison.
http://www.kfoxtv.com/news/13903480/detail.html
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June 4, 2008 - A 24-YO man was charged with four
counts of discharging a laser and causing the
pilots to be temporary visual impaired or
disoriented. The green beam was directed at two
planes landing at Cleveland (OH) Hopkins
International Airport: a Life Flight helicopter, and a
Cleveland police helicopter. Police found the
suspect in the rear passenger seat of a car
holding the laser. He was later convicted and
sentenced to 3 years in prison.
http://blog.cleveland.com/metro/2008/06/man_accused_of_pointing_laser.html
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May 8, 2008 – A police helicopter pilot was
temporarily blinded by a laser illumination as he
flew over Lancashire (UK). The pilot took "evasive
action" while in mid-air to avoid crashing to the
ground during the incident. A 45-YO man was
arrested. It was the third incident in seven days
where a helicopter pilot had been dazzled by
lasers. The pens used had been bought on eBay
and were believed to be more powerful than a
normal laser pen.
http://www.lep.co.uk/news/Man-arrested-in-helicopter-laser.4061881.jp
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March 5, 2008 - Transport Canada reports indicate
laser incidents are occurring with an alarming
frequency. There have been 11 incidents reported
in Ontario since last March, but many more may
have gone unreported. A total of 33 pilots across
Canada have reported being flashed by a laser
beam while flying.
http://www.thestar.com/News/GTA/article/309525
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August 15, 2007 - Australia introduced 2-year jail
terms and fines of up to $30K for shining lasers
on aircraft in flight. The government says
incidents are happening 2-3/week in Australia.
Authorities have reports of 170 lasing incidents
since January 2006. The government announced it
would ban imports of high-intensity laser pointers
(effective July 1, 2008).
-perrett@aviationweek .com
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March 30, 2008 - Six aircraft flying into Sydney
(Australia) Airport were hit by blinding green lights
in what safety officials say is the city's worst laser
attack. It was the first recorded "cluster attack" in
which three or four people used lasers to make a
coordinated attack on aircraft coming into the
airport over heavily populated suburbs. Air traffic
control closed the approach flight path and
diverted incoming aircraft to a different runway,
forcing delays in some flights. The laser attacks
were from 10:15 to 10:30 pm.
http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/laser-snipers-hit-planes/2008/03/29/1206207485440.html
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April 2008 - A new law proposed by the
Premier of New South Wales declares
possession of the handheld lasers a
serious crime, punishable by up to 14
years in prison, depending on the device’s
power. Weaker lasers could carry a $5,000
fine or 2 years in jail, and there would be
exemptions only for teachers,
construction crews, and certain scientists.
http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/04/21/australia-takes-on-laser-lunatics/?hp
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Aircraft Cockpit Illumination by Altitude
Percentage of Cockpit Illuminations
by Altitude, Flight Zone and Year
K Feet
2004
2005
2006
2007
TOTAL
0 – 0.9
0.0%
3.4%
2.7%
7.7%
5.2%
1 – 1.9
6.7%
7.5%
13.1%
11.8%
11.3%
6.7%
11.0%
15.8%
19.6%
16.5%
2 – 2.9
6.7%
9.6%
11.3%
16.3%
13.3%
3 – 3.9
26.7%
11.0%
12.6%
13.8%
13.1%
4 – 4.9
20.0%
10.3%
14.4%
8.8%
11.0%
5 – 5.9
0.0%
11.0%
7.2%
6.3%
7.4%
6 – 6.9
6.7%
7.5%
10.8%
8.8%
9.1%
7 – 7.9
6.7%
5.5%
6.8%
4.7%
5.5%
8 – 8.9
13.3%
10.3%
6.3%
4.1%
6.2%
9 – 9.9
13.3%
3.4%
2.3%
3.0%
3.1%
CFZ Total
93.3%
68.5%
71.6%
65.8%
68.6%
>10K Total
0%
20.5%
12.6%
14.6%
14.9%
Laser Free Zone
LFZ Total
Critical Flight Zone
Note: 16.5% of illuminations of the aircraft cockpit are below
2000 feet AGL. Almost 69% of illuminations are in the CFZ.
Laser Incident Rate by Region and Year
The incident rate was highest in the AWP (0.86/100K flight operations)
for the 2004-2006 period.
Traffic Volume by Region
By region, the percentage
of traffic volume is
disproportionate to the
rate of illuminations.
The percentage of traffic volume for a particular
region is the number of flight operations in that
region divided by the total number for the NAS.
Note: The Western Pacific
region’s incident rate was
3.6 times higher than that
of the Southern region
(0.86 and 0.24/100K flight
operations, respectively)
although both had similar
traffic volumes (22 and
21%, respectively).
Airports with 10 or More Laser Incidents
Incident clusters specific to a particular airport can distort the
incident rate (per 100K flight operations) for an entire region.
Clusters occur at random over periods of a few days or months.
Visual and Physiological Effects and Operational Problems by Altitude
VISUAL EFFECTS
ZONE
PAIN/
INJURY
OPERATIONAL
PROBLEM
COCKPIT
ILLUMINATIONS
GLARE
FLASHBLINDNESS
AFTER-IMAGE
LASER
FREE
4
6
9
5
10
18
CRITICAL
8
14
9
7
13
37
≥10K
5
5
1
0
1
9
TOTAL
17
25
19
12
24
64
Of 746 cockpit illuminations where altitude was provided,
8.6% described one or more adverse effects (2004-2007).
These include visual effects (8.2%), pain and/or possible
injury (1.6%), and operational problems (3.2%).
Percentage of Laser Illuminations
by
Month
Type of Flight
Laser Illuminations occur most frequently in November, December, and February,
and least frequently in May, June, and July. About 66% of all illuminations are of
commercial aircraft.
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Percentage of Laser Illuminations
by Time of Day
Note: Laser Illuminations occur most frequently from 6:30 – 11:30 p.m.
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Summary
 The incidence of illumination is significantly
higher in the Western Pacific region.
 Almost 70% of laser incidents occur between 2K
and 10K feet AGL
 Almost 70% of all incidents occur between the
hours of 7 to 11 pm (25% between 9 – 10 pm) .
 The fewest incidents occur during the months of
May, June, and July (16%).
 Percentage of incidents by type of flight:
• 66% Commercial
• 6% Helicopters (Med Evac./Law Enf.)
Conclusions
 Incidents associated with authorized laser
operations are rare, but illumination reports
from handheld lasers have increased in recent
years. This may be due to increased awareness
and a better reporting system (AC 70-2).
 Handheld lasers are cheaper and more powerful.
 Better consumer awareness may be needed
concerning misuse and potential penalties (e.g.,
FDA labeling).
 Continued monitoring by aviation & law
enforcement is warranted.