CHAPTER 7 Early Childhood: Physical and Cognitive Development

Growth Patterns

Growth Patterns

• Growth rate

-Slows during preschool years -Girls and boys gain 2 to 3 inches in height per year -Weight gains remain fairly even at about 4 to 6 pounds per year Children become “slender” as height increases -Boys become slightly taller and heavier than girls

• Variations are shown from child to child

Fig. 7-1, p. 134

Development of the Brain

• Brain

-Brain develops more quickly than any other organ during childhood -At 2 years, brain is 75% of adult weight -At 5 years, brain is 90% of adult weight • Increase in brain size due in part to myelination of nerve fibers • Completion of myelination of neural pathways that link the cerebellum to the cerebral cortex helps development of fine motor skills, balance, and coordination.

Brain Development (cont’d)

• Parts of the brain involved in the ability to sustain attention and screen out distractions have become increasingly myelinated (between ages 4 and 7). • Visual processing speed improves and reaches adult level (at adolescence) • Functions of left and right hemispheres overlap • The hemispheres are aided in cooperation by the myelination of the corpus callosum.

- a thick bundle of nerve fibers that connects the hemispheres

Brain Development (cont’d)

• Plasticity

Brain’s ability to compensate for injuries to particular parts of the brain -Greatest at 1 to 2 years of age

• Preschoolers with damage to language areas can overcome them due to plasticity.

Motor Development

Motor Development

• Gross motor skills

-Involve large muscles used in locomotion -ex.: balancing on one foot, walking up stairs, pedaling a bike -By age 4 to 5, most older preschoolers have mastered large motor skills.

• Boys and girls similar in motor skills -Girls somewhat better in balance and precision -Boys show some advantage in throwing and kicking • Motor experiences in infancy may affect the development of motor skills in early childhood.

Table 7-1, p. 136

Table 7-2, p. 137

Physical Activity

• Preschoolers spend an average of 25 hours a week in large muscle activity.

-Decreases as child ages • Rough-and-tumble play helps develop physical and social skills in children.

-Is not the same as aggressive behavior • Physically active parents are likely to have physically active children.

-Children of active fathers 3.5 times as likely to be active -Twin studies also suggest there is a genetic tendency for activity level

Fine Motor Skills & Children’s Artistic Development

• Fine motor skills involve the small muscles used in manipulation and coordination.

-Development of drawing is linked to the development of motor and cognitive skills -Kellogg (1959, 1970) identified basic scribbles needed in the building blocks of art: vertical, horizontal, diagonal, circular, curving, waving/zigzagging, and dots -Four stages of making scribbles consist of 1. placement 2. shape 3. design 4. pictorial

Handedness

• Handedness emerges during infancy -By 4 months -clear preference for right hand -By 6 to 14 months -preference to grasping with particular hand increases -By childhood -clear preference for right or left hand • Origins of handedness • If both parents are right handed, 92% chance that child will be right-handed • If both parents are left-handed, 50% chance that child will be left-handed

Health and Illness

Nutrition

• Nutritional needs vary by age.

-1- to 3-year-olds need 1,000 to 1,300 calories a day -Appetite becomes erratic during 2 nd caloric needs decrease and 3 rd year of life and -4- to 6-year-olds need 1,400 calories a day • Children are often fed too much salt and sugar.

• Food preferences are somewhat environmental.

• Repeated exposure to a food increases the liking of it.

• Parents are the role model for which types of food a child will like to eat.

Minor Illnesses

• Minor illnesses include -respiratory infections -gastrointestinal upsets -last a few days to a week • These diseases in childhood are normal -Leading killer of children in developing countries is diarrheal illness • American children between the ages of 1 and 3 average eight to nine minor illnesses a year – Between the ages of 4 and 10, the average drops to four to six

Major Illnesses

• Advances in immunization along with development of antibiotics have reduced and/or eradicated illnesses such as rubella, measles, tetanus, mumps, whooping cough, diphtheria, and polio.

• 1/3 of children in the U.S. (younger than 18 years of age) suffer from a chronic illness such as: – arthritis, diabetes, cerebral palsy, or cystic fibrosis • Worldwide, 8 to 9 million children die from: – pneumonia, diarrhea, measles, tetanus, whooping cough, and tuberculosis • Air pollution from the combustion of fossil fuels for heating and cooking causes many respiratory infections.

Major Illnesses (cont’d)

• Diarrhea -kills nearly 2 million children under the age of 5 each year -is due to unsafe drinking water and poor sanitation/hygiene • Lead exposure -Consuming lead -Breathing in dust from paint with lead in it -Drinking tap water with lead in it -Can contribute to neurological damage and lowered cognitive functioning and other delays in childhood

Accidents

• Number one cause of death in early childhood -Motor vehicle accidents • Boys -More likely than girls to incur accidental injuries at all ages and in all socioeconomic groups • Poor children -Five times as likely to die from fires -More than twice as likely to die in motor vehicle accidents • High accident rate of low-income children may result in part from living in dangerous housing and neighborhoods.

Sleep

Sleep Disorders

•

Sleep terrors

-More severe than nightmares -Occur during deep sleep (not during REM) -Begin in childhood; end in late adolescence -Can be associated with stress -May wake suddenly with a surge in heart and respiration rates, talk incoherently; thrash about • Sleep terrors can contribute to child’s fear of going to sleep and insomnia; caretakers have to be understanding and give affection; regular sleep routine helps

Sleep Disorders (cont’d)

•

Sleep walking (somnambulism)

-Children may walk, rearrange toys, go to the bathroom, go to the refrigerator -Will have no memory of the activity -Awakening does not cause aggressive behavior -Onset is between ages of 3 and 8 -Occurs during deep sleep -Associated with immaturity of thenervous system

Table 7-3, p. 141

Elimination Disorders

Elimination Disorders

• Most American children potty train between the ages of 3 and 4; may still have “accidents” • Enuresis Failure to control the bladder (urination) once the “normal” age for achieving bladder control has been reached (usually at age 5) -Does not include bed-wetting under twice a month -Immaturity of the motor cortex may be contributor -Outgrow between age 8 and adolescence • Bed-wetting -Inability to wake up during the night and go to the bathroom -8-10% of American children bed wet -Occurs during deep sleep

Elimination Disorders (cont’d)

• Encopresis

-Lack of control over the bowels -More common with boys as is bed-wetting -1-2% of children at the ages of 7 and 8 have continuing problems with bowels -Soiling more likely to happen during the day, causing embarrassment to the child -Stems from physical causes such as chronic constipation as well as psychological factors such as harsh punishment for toileting accidents

Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage

Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage

• Preoperational stage lasts from age 2 to age 7.

• Language ability is the greatest symbolic activity during this stage.

-Scribbling/drawing begins at start of this stage • Symbolic play (pretend play) is engaged in from 15 months of age.

-Increases in complexity as child ages • Quality of child’s play has long-term implications.

-Preschoolers who engage in violent pretend play are less empathic, less likely to help other children, and more likely to engage in antisocial behavior later on

Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (cont’d)

• 65% of preschoolers have imaginary friends.

-More common among first born and only children than children with older siblings • Children with imaginary playmates are -less aggressive, more cooperative, more creative than children without imaginary friends; show better ability to concentrate and are more advanced in language development • Egocentrism -One-dimensional thinking -Think parents are aware of everything that is happening to them Piaget used “three-mountains” test to measure it

Fig. 7-4, p. 144

Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (cont’d)

• Precausal -Unless preoperational children know the natural causes of an event, their reasons are likely to be based egocentrically and not based on science.

• Transductive reasoning -Children reason by going from one specific isolated event to another.

• Animism -Attribution of life and intentions to inanimate objects • Artificialism -Assumes environmental factors such as rain and thunder have been designed and made by people

Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (cont’d)

• Preoperational child has difficulty making distinctions between mental and physical events; may believe dreams are real • Can only focus on one dimension at a time • Conservation -Law that holds that properties of substances such as volume, mass, and number remain the same even if you change their shape or arrangement -Attainment of this skill moves the child into concrete operational stage • Preoperational child has not mastered reversibility

Fig. 7-5, p. 145

Fig. 7-6, p. 146

Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (cont’d)

• Class inclusion

-Including new objects or categories in broader mental classes or categories -Requires child to focus on two aspects of a situation at once -This skill not observed during preoperational stage

Factors in Cognitive Development

Vygotsky’s Factors in Cognitive Development

• Scaffolding -Temporary support provided by a parent or teacher to learning children -Guidance by adult decreases as child is capable of carrying out task on their own • Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky’s term for the situation in which a child carries out tasks with the help of someone who is more skilled -Gap between what children are capable of doing now and what they could do with help from others -Adults or older children help in guiding by gearing assistance to children’s capabilities

The “HOME” Environment

• HOME -Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment -Caldwell et al. (2003) developed measure for evaluating children’s home environments -Contains six subscales Better predictor of young children’s IQ than social class, mother’s IQ, or infant IQ scores -Home environment is connected with occupational success as an adult • Factors such as parental responsiveness, stimulation, encouraging independence of preschooler are connected with higher IQ scores and greater school achievement.

Table 7-4, p. 147

Effects of Early Childhood Education

• Preschool education enables children to get an early start on achievement in school.

• Children from lower SES -show lower performance on standardized intelligence tests -are at greater risk for school failure • Effects of preschool intervention programs -Studies of Head Start and other enrichment programs show that environmental enrichment as well as parent education can enhance the cognitive development of economically disadvantaged children.

Television

• U.S. children spend more time watching television than they do in school.

– 3-year-olds watch 2 to 3 hours of TV per day • Children’s programming – Shows mild to moderate effects on preschoolers’ cognitive development • Sesame Street – Regular viewing increases children’s learning of numbers, letters, and cognitive skills

Theory of Mind

Theory of Mind

• Preschoolers can accurately predict and explain human action and emotion in terms of mental states.

• Preschoolers can separate their beliefs from those of another person who has false knowledge of a situation by age 4 to 5.

• By age 4, children understand that senses contribute to understanding qualities of an object.

• Appearance-reality distinction -Understanding the difference between real events and mental events

Development of Memory

Development of Memory

• By age 4, children can remember events from 1 1/2 years earlier.

• Scripts -Young children form scripts when describing what happens during a particular event.

-Script becomes more elaborate as it is told • Autobiographical memory (episodic memory) -Memory or specific events is facilitated by children talking about them with others • Parental interest and questioning increases preschooler’s memory.

Development of Memory (cont’d)

• When preschoolers are younger, they remember more than they reported.

• Verbal reports used to measure accuracy of preschoolers’ memory appear to underestimate their memory.

• Rehearsal -Memory strategy using repetition; engaged in around 5 years • Sorting objects enhances preschoolers’ memory.

• Memory strategies advance during middle childhood.

Language Development: Why “Daddy Goed Away”

Development of Vocabulary

• Preschoolers learn an average of 9 words a day.

• Fast-mapping -Process where child quickly attaches a new word to its appropriate concept • Whole-object assumption -Assume that words refer to whole objects and not to their component parts or characteristics • Contrast assumption -The assumption that objects have only one label

Development of Grammar

• Children’s sentence structure increases during 3 rd year of life • Overregularization -C hildren acquire grammatical rules as they learn language; young ages apply rules rigidly -Reflects accurate knowledge of grammar • Certain “wh” questions (what, who, where) appear earlier than others (why, when, which, how).

• Passive sentences are difficult for 2- and 3-year-olds.

Pragmatics and Language

• Pragmatics -Practical aspects of communication -Children demonstrate pragmatism when they adjust speech to fit the social situation • Language and cognitive development are interwoven.

• Piaget maintained cognitive development precedes language development.

-Children learn the word and then apply it to the category • Research on which develops first is inconclusive • Vygotsky maintained that vocalizations and thoughts are separate during the first year.

• Inner speech -Spoken aloud thoughts are internalized