Transcript Powerpoint
The most important biological compounds are
polymers
Polymers
(poly =
many
) The polymers are:
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
(fats), and
nucleic acids
(DNA/RNA).
A polymer is made up of a chain of many
monomers
linked together
MONOMERS
(mono = one) Monomers are:
amino acids, sugars, fatty acids,
and
nucleotides.
These are made
(dehydration synthesis)
down
(hydrolysis)
or broken over and over in living cells.
Large polymers are also called
_______________
Macromolecules are formed by by reactions involving the loss of water =
joined together during dehydration synthesis. Chains of monomers
Note
: enzymes that speed up dehydration synthesis reactions are called
(i.e. done by
adding
water to polymer).
Note
: enzymes that speed up hydrolysis reactions are called
http://science.nhmccd.edu/biol/dehydrat/dehydrat.html
Monomers (sub units) Polymers
a) b) c) d)
Polymers
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)
Hydrolysis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) a) b) c) d)
Monomers
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) c) d)
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) c) d)
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)
Dehydration Synthesis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) c) d)
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
H 2 O & Energy
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)
Dehydration Synthesis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) c) d)
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
H 2 O & Energy
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) d)
Dehydration Synthesis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) c) d)
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
H 2 O & Energy
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) d)
Dehydration Synthesis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) d)
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
H 2 O & Energy
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d)
Dehydration Synthesis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) d)
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
H 2 O & Energy
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d)
Dehydration Synthesis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d)
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
H 2 O & Energy
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids)
Dehydration Synthesis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d)
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
H 2 O & Energy
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids)
Dehydration Synthesis
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
H 2 O & Energy Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) These reactions require: 1.
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
H 2 O & Energy Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) These reactions require: 1. ATP energy
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
H 2 O & Energy Dehydration Synthesis
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) These reactions require: 1. ATP energy 2. Water
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
H 2 O & Energy
Polymers
a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids)
Dehydration Synthesis
These reactions require: 1. ATP energy 2. Water 3. Enzymes
Monomers
a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides
Hydrolysis H 2 O & Energy
Where does the name come from?
Hydrated Carbons:
(CH 2 0)n
Carbohydrates have the empirical formula of (CH 2 0)n where n = the # of times the chain is repeated.
The carbons, hydrogens and oxygens are found in the ratio of
1:2:1
and are made up of a repeating chain of sugars.
(CH 2 0) 3 =
C
3
H
6
0
3
(CH 2 0) 6 =
C
6
H
12
0
6
Sugars are also known as
saccarides
.
Carbohydrates usually end in ‘
ose
’ . Can you think of any examples?
The basic sugar molecule is
GLUCOSE
:
C
6
H
12
O
6 .
Glucose has a
ring
structure. Other monosaccharides include
fructose, ribose, deoxyribose
6 sided = HEXOSE C 6 H 12 O 6 5 sided = PENTOSE C 6 H 12 O 6
When two sugars bind together via
DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS
a disaccharide is formed.
glucose + glucose forms the sugar
maltose
glucose + fructose forms the sugar
sucrose
galactose + glucose forms the sugar
lactose
• • • • When many sugars bind together via dehydration synthesis four types of polysaccharides may be formed:
Starch Glycogen Cellulose Chitin
• The
cell walls
of plants are made of cellulose • They are
long chains
of glucose molecules with
no side chains
.
• • The linkage between the Carbon atoms of the sugars is different than starch and glycogen No mammal can break this bond • 5. This is why we
cannot digest
cellulose =
FIBRE
.
•
Plants store their energy
as starch • Starch is made up of many glucose molecules linked together • Starch has
few side chains
•
Animals store their energy
(extra glucose) as glycogen • We store glycogen in our
liver and muscles
• Glycogen is made up of many glucose molecules linked together • Glycogen has
many side chains
• Made by
animals and fungi
• Long glucose chains linked with
covalent bonds
. • Very
strong
• Makes structures like
exo-skeletons
, fingernails,
claws
, and beaks
1.
Energy
: when the
bonds
between Carbon atoms
are broken
, the energy
released
can be used by cells. Carbohydrates are the primary energy molecules for all life.
2.
Structural
: Cellulose is the major structural compound in plants (is used in the
cell wall
).
Lipids are made up of the elements
C,H,O
but in no set ratio. Lipids are large molecules that are
insoluble in water
.
Synthesis of a FAT animation: http://www2.nl.edu/jste/lipids.htm
1. Composed of
3 fatty acids
bonded to
1 glycerol
. 2. Fatty acids contain a
long chain
of 16-18 Carbons with an acid end.
3. Glycerol is a
small 3 Carbon chain
with 3 alcohol (OH) groups 4. These two molecules bind together via dehydration synthesis
1. Saturated fats :
There are
no double bonds
fatty acids. in the carbon chains of the The carbons are filled with
hydrogens
.
Unhealthy
. They mostly come from
animals
.
Become
solid
at room temperature. Examples: lard,
butter
, animal fats…
2. Unsaturated fats :
There are one (
monounsaturated
) or more
double bonds
(
polyunsaturated
). Mostly come from
plants
. They are
liquid
at room temperature.
Healthy
Examples:
olive oil
, corn oil, palm oil…
Are used to make up the two layered
cell membrane
of all cells.
In phospholipids, the
third fatty acid
group of a triglyceride is
replaced by
an inorganic
phosphate group
(
PO 4 3-
).
This creates a
polar end
: The
phosphate
end is water soluble (
hydrophilic
) The
fatty acid
is not water soluble (
hydrophobic
)
hydrophobic hydrophilic
Steroids structurally look very different from lipids, but are also
water insoluble
. They are made up of
4 Carbon ring
molecules fused together. Examples:
testosterone
, estrogen,
cholesterol
, and vitamin
D
. Used as
sex hormones
1. Long term storage for energy
(more efficient spacewise than glycogen or starch).
2. Insulation
and
protection
in animals 3. Making some
hormones
(steroids) 4. Structure of
cell membranes
. Without lipids, we would have no cells.
• Found in fish and leafy vegetables • Other foods are now offering omega-3 ’ s (eggs, cereals, margarine…) • Help to reduce cancer • Helps with vision • Helps us think better
Scientific evidence has shown that dietary saturated and trans fats can increase your risk of developing heart disease.
1. Proteins are made up of the elements
C,H,O, and N
(but in no set ratio). 2. Proteins are chains of
Amino Acids
(usually
75 or more
) that bond together via dehydration synthesis.
3. 40%
of the average human body is made up of protein.
1. The building blocks of Proteins are amino acids.
2. There are
three parts
to an amino acids:
1. Amino Group
H + ) (NH 2 or NH 3 + ) acts as a base (accepts
2. Carboxyl Group
(donates H + ) (COOH or COO ) acts as an acid
3. R Group
: there are
20
different possible R groups
Amino acids bond together via dehydration synthesis.
The amino acids bind together with a
peptide bond
.
The PEPTIDE bond is formed between
C and N
and one water is lost (dehydration synthesis).
When the original two amino acids form the beginning of the chain (with one peptide bond) it is called a
DIPEPTIDE
.
Then the chain grows to become a
TRIPEPTIDE
.
Ultimately you end up with a
POLYPEPTIDE
(which can have anywhere between
30 and 30,000
amino acids). Another name for a polypeptide is
protein
.
Every protein is different because the
ORDER of amino acids
is different.
The chains come together differently due to the
order of the different R groups
and
how they bond
together. This structural difference also makes the polypeptides (proteins) functionally different.
This is the
first level
proteins are formed. of how It is simply the
order of amino acids
joined together with peptide bonds. It is the amino acid sequence that determines the nature and chemistry of the protein. If you change the order of amino acids, the protein may not be able to
do its job
.
This is the second step in the formation of a protein. When a peptide bond is formed, a double bonded oxygen is left over, which is partially
negative
(the carboxyl group:
COO -
). It is attracted to the
positive NH 3 +
acids in the chain. amino group from other amino This attraction forms a
HYDROGEN BOND
.
This causes the chain to twist into either a spiral called an
alpha helix
or a
beta pleated sheet
.
The next interactions take place
between the R groups
. Some R groups are
reactive
and will interact with other reactive R groups in the chain. These are the amino acids that are either
charged
or that have a
sulphur atom
.
The interactions (
+ and –
attractions and
S-S bridges
) will fold the molecule over into a highly
specific 3-dimensional shape
. It is the 3-D shape that will determine the protein ’ s the body.
job
or role in
The last level in protein formation is
not seen
in all proteins. However, some proteins are actually
2 or more
molecules joined to form a functional protein. They are held together with an
ionic bond
.
Two examples:
Insulin
has
2
subunits
Hemoglobin
has
4
subunits.
Peptide
Bonds Hydroge
n
Bonds Interactions between
R groups Ionic
Bonds
The final shape of a protein (its tertiary or quaternary structure) is very
specific
and enables it to do its job/function. Any
change
in a proteins ’
shape
will affect its
function
.
Denaturation is when a protein's tertiary structure is lost. This happens when the
bonds between the R groups are broken
. When a protein is denatured, the protein can ’ t do its job and becomes
useless
.
How can this happen? There are three common ways:
1. Temperature
:
High temperatures affect the weak Hydrogen bonds and can
distort or break
them, thus changing the structural shape. A slight increase in temperature an cause a
reversible
change (ie: fever). A high temperature increase can cause an
irreversible
(ie: cooking an egg). change
How can this happen? There are three common ways:
2.
Chemicals
:
Heavy metals such as
lead and mercury
are large atoms that are attracted the R groups of amino acids. They
bond to the R group
the protein ’ s shape.
and distort This is usually
irreversible
don ’ t want to ‘ let go ’ ).
(they usually
How can this happen? There are three common ways:
3.
pH
:
As some of the R groups are acids and some are bases, every protein (enzyme) has a
preferred pH
. Any change in pH causes a
change in the acid-base R group
interactions and this will change the
shape
of the protein.
1. Structural: proteins help make up all structures in living things Actin & Myosin:
muscle
proteins
Keratin
: nails, hair, horns, feathers
Collagen
: bones, teeth, cartilage, tendon, ligament, blood vessels, skin matrix
2. Functional:
other proteins help us to keep our bodies
functioning properly
and to
digest our food
.
Enzymes :
are proteins that are
catalysts
which speed up reactions and control all cell activities.
Hemoglobin
3. Food Source :
once we have used up all of our carbohydrates and fats, proteins will be used for energy.
Proteins are worth the
least amount of energy
per gram.
Anorexia and Bolimia
Nucleic acids are
acidic
molecules that are found in the
nucleus
of cells. There are two types, both of which are very
LARGE
. 1. DNA:
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
2. RNA:
Ribonucleic Acid
All nucleic acids are composed of units called
NUCLEOTIDES
, which are composed of three sub-molecules: 1.
Pentose Sugar
(ribose or deoxyribose) 2.
Phosphate
3.
Nitrogen Base
(purine or pyrimidine)
They are formed by joining their subunits together via dehydration synthesis (nucleotide + nucleotide … = nucleic acid).
This is quite a
complex
process to which we will devote an entire unit to.
Adenine and Guanine
Have
two
rings
Found in both DNA and RNA Memory Trick:
It ’ s Got 2 Be GAP
Uracil
Cytosine , Thymine , and Uracil
Have only
one
ring Cytosine is in
both
DNA and RNA Thymine is in
DNA only
Uracil is in
RNA only Memory Trick:
CUT the Pyramid
Structure of DNA:
DNA is composed of two complimentary strands of nucleotides. The two strands are joined by
hydrogen bonds
which form between
complimentary
nitrogen bases:
Adenine with Thymine (A-T or T-A)
They join with
2
hydrogen bonds
Cytosine with Guanine (C-G or G-C)
They join with
3
hydrogen bonds
When DNA is first made, it is just
two linear strands
of nucleotides joined together.
Due to internal bonding, the DNA molecule then forms into a
double helix
(twisted ladder).
a) Directs and controls all cell activities
by making all of the
proteins
and
enzymes
b) Contains all of the
genetic information
necessary to make one complete organism of very exact specifications
RNA is made by
DNA
.
It is not confined to the nucleus, it moves out of the nucleus
into the cytoplasm
of the cell.
It has
Ribose
sugar instead of Deoxyribose. It has no
thymines
, and uses
URACIL
’
s
instead. It is
single stranded
and therefore, no helix is formed. There are
3 types
of RNA.
The function of RNA is to
assist DNA in making proteins
.
DNA
Nitrogen bases: A,T,G,C Sugar: deoxyribose Double stranded 1 type Found in the nucleus only Forms a double helix DNA makes DNA Very big molecule
RNA
Nitrogen bases: A, U, G, C Sugar: ribose Single stranded 3 types: a) mRNA – messenger b) tRNA – transfer c) rRNA – ribosomal Found in the nucleus and the cytoplasm No helix DNA makes RNA Much smaller molecule
ATP is also thought of as a
nucleic acid
as it has the same
structure
as a nucleotide. The only difference is that it has
THREE phosphate groups
instead of one.
This is the
energy source
for the body.
Our
mitochondria
turn the energy of
glucose
into
ATP
.
Why is it a good molecule to store energy? It takes a lot of
energy
to put two phosphate molecules together (both – ’ ve). So when you
break that bond
, a lot of energy is
released
.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -----> 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy (heat and ATP)