Ethical Issues
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Transcript Ethical Issues
Literature Review
and
Ethical Issues
1. Literature Review
2. Ethical Behavior
3. The Nuremberg Code
4. IRB
What is a Literature Review?
What is known about the subject?
Are there any gaps in the knowledge of the
subject?
Have areas of further study been identified by
other researchers that you may want to
consider?
Is there consensus about the topic?
What is a Literature Review?
What methods or problems were identified by
others studying in the field and how might
they impact your research?
What is the current status of research in this
area?
What sources of information or data were
identified that might be useful to you?
How to do a literature search?
Defining the topic
In order to begin your literature review you
must first define your research question.
What is the purpose? What does it
mean? What are the key words?
Are there other words which could be used,
such as synonyms, variations in spelling?
How to do a literature search?
Compiling a list of keywords
Think about both general terms and very
specific terms for broadening and narrowing
your search.
The keyword or phrase is the basic unit of
any search.
The use of an index and/or thesaurus is also
advisable to establish the useful terms.
How to do a literature search?
Identifying Resources
Information is available in a number of
formats:
Books
Journals
Conference Papers
Dissertations
Internet (http://scholar.google.com)
Electronic Databases
Jstor at http://www.jstor.org/
Ethical behavior (definition)
Behavior is ethical insofar as it follows the
rules that have been specifically oriented to
the welfare of the larger society and not to the
self-interest of the professional
To act unethically is to act unprofessionally
Ethical research
There's no such thing as perfectly ethical
research
In fact, all research is inherently unethical to
some degree
This is because you're using the most
powerful tools science has to offer in getting
at truth or some needed change, and with
your results, somebody's going to be proven
wrong or lose out in the power struggle
Ethical research
There's also no such thing as totally
harmless research
Somebody, usually your subjects, is going
to be harmed, either psychologically,
socially, physically, or economically
Their privacy is invaded to get any useful
information (why do research on the
obvious, surface characteristics of
people?), and this is psychological harm
Social Harm
Socially and physically, we are harming them
by taking up their time with our “silly” research
Economically, we are exploiting them by not
paying them for their contribution
We, the researchers, will go on and become
famous writing a book about them, but they will
always remain lowly research subjects
Ethically, research is just a whole awkward and
asymmetrical situation overall.
Political Regulation of Research
Historically, governments have had to put
serious restrictions on researchers. In fact,
the origin of codes of research ethics can be
traced to the NUREMBERG CODE, a list of
rules established by a military tribunal on
Nazi war crimes during World War II.
The Nuremberg Code
Voluntary consent
Fruitful results for the good of society
Anticipated results will justify the performance
of experiment
Avoid all unnecessary physical or mental
suffering
No research should be conducted where
there is a reason to believe that death or
disabling injury will occur
The degree of risk to be taken should never
exceed that determined by the humanitarian
importance of the problem to be solved
The Nuremberg Code
Proper preparation should be made-protect
the research subjects against injure, or death
Research should be conducted only by
scientifically qualified persons
During research the subjects should be at
liberty to bring the research to the end
Research must be ready to terminate the
research at any stage if there is possibility to
hurt research subjects
IRB
Data: Anonymous _ Confidential __
Intentionally identified___
If anonymous or confidential, describe how
anonymity or confidentiality will be maintained
(e.g., coded to a master list and separated
from data, locked cabinet, office, restricted
computer, etc.). List all sites where data
might be stored.
IRB
Who will have access to the data? Please
be specific_____________
Will video tapes ___ audio tapes ___
photographs ___ be taken?
If yes, where will tapes or photographs be
stored?
When will all research materials be
destroyed?
IRB
How will subjects be selected or recruited and
how will subjects be approached (or
contacted)?
Describe any potential risks to the subjects,
and describe how you will minimize these
risks. These include
stress, discomfort,
social risks (e.g., embarrassment), legal risks,
invasion of privacy, and side effects
Social Science Experiments
Social research might also put subjects at risk
Three social scientific studies are cited most
often
Laud Humphrey’s “Tearoom Trade” (1970)
Stanley Milgram’s “Obedience to Authority”
(1974)
Philip Zimbardo’s simulated prison
experiment (1972-1974)
Laud Humphreys and the Tearoom
Sex Study
He stationed himself in "tearooms" and offered to
serve as "watchqueen"
He was able to gain the confidence of some of the
men he observed, disclose his role as scientist, and
persuade them to tell him about the rest of their lives
and about their motives
Humphreys secretly recorded the license numbers of
their cars
A year later and carefully disguised, Humphreys
appeared at their homes claiming to be a healthservice interviewer and interviewed them about their
marital status, race, job, and so on.
Humphreys' findings destroy many
stereotypes
54% of his subjects were married and living with
their wives
38% were neither bisexual nor homosexual: they
were men whose marriages were marked with
tension
24 % were clearly bisexual, happily married, well
educated, economically quite successful, and
exemplary members of their community
Another 24 % were single and were covert
homosexuals
Only 14 % of Humphreys' subjects were members
of the gay community and were interested in
primarily homosexual relationships
Stanley Milgram’s “Obedience to
Authority”
Psychologist at Yale University, conducted a
study focusing on the conflict between
obedience to authority and personal
conscience
Germans are different
Character flaw “Readiness to obey authority
without question, no matter what outrageous
acts authority commands”
Everything in the experiment was staged
except one person-subject
Milgram changed a lot in his initial script
because people were obeying too much
Experiment
“Learner” is taken to a room
where he is strapped in a
chair to prevent movement
and an electrode is placed
on his arm. The "teacher" is
instructed to read a list of
two word pairs and ask the
"learner" to read them back.
If "learner" gets the answer
wrong, the "teacher" is
supposed to shock the
"learner" starting at 15 volts
Experiment
The generator has 30
switches ranging from "slight
shock" to "danger: severe
shock“ The final two switches
are labeled "XXX“
The "teacher" automatically is
supposed to increase the
shock each time the "learner"
misses a word in the list. The
"learner" was an actor who
was never actually harmed
Results
“Two-thirds of this study participants fall into
the category of ‘obedient' subjects, and that
they represent ordinary people drawn from
the working, managerial, and professional
classes
65% of all of the "teachers" punished the
"learners" to the maximum 450 volts
No subject stopped before reaching 300 volts
Results
The theory that only the most severe
monsters on the sadistic fringe of
society would submit to such cruelty is
disclaimed
Ethical issues of Milgram’s
experiment
Milgram made a judgment about there is no
possible psychological damage to the
subjects
Milgram interviewed subjects afterwards
83% said they were glad to participate
1.3% said they were sorry
However, Milgram could not know that only
1.3% would be sorry
Zimbardo’s simulated prison
experiment
Subjects –males, undergraduate, paid
volunteers
Role of either guard or prisoner
Mock prison was constructed in the basement
of Stanford university
Experiment was to have lasted for two weeks
but Zimbardo cancelled the study after 6 days
because of possible harm
What went wrong?
Individuals became carried away with their
roles
Guards behaved aggressively and
dehumanizing toward prisoners
Prisoners behaved ether passively or were
hostile
Subjects did consent to participate in the
study, but they did not expect the
consequences