Chapter Eighteen:

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George Bellows,

The Men of the Docks

(1912)

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Lower Broadway, 1899 2

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

The New Urban Growth

– “ Age of the City”: 1870-1920   Period marked by growing size and power of urban centers From 1880 to 1900: Chicago went from 0.5 million to 1.7 million and New York went from 1.2 million to 3.4 million (1898 consolidation added Brooklyn, adding one million overnight)  In 1860, 20 percent live in towns of over 8,000; in 1910, 50 percent live in towns of over 8,000; by 1920, a majority of people in the U.S. are living in “urban” areas: towns/cities of 2,500 or more people  Nonfarm wage workers outnumber farm workers in the U.S. for the first time in 1880  Agricultural decline in East leads to people moving to western farmlands, but in even greater numbers to cities. 3

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4 

The New Urban Growth

– The Migrations   Black Migration: In the 1880s, African American migration from rural areas begins: most find work in service occupations in cities, leading to more females.

Southern and Eastern Europe: “Old Immigration” was largely Northern European: Irish, German, Scandinavian, English, etc. Changes more toward Eastern and Southern Europe by 1880; by 1890, more than half of all immigrants come from these areas. Tended to be poorer and less educated than earlier waves.

 Other Sources: Most immigrants from Europe, but smaller numbers come from Canada, Latin America, and Asia  Ellis Island: Opens in 1892, and between that year and 1924, an estimated 22 million came through the facility.

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Sources of Immigration from Europe, 1860-1900 5

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Total Immigration, 1861-1900 6

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The New Urban Growth

– The Ethnic City   Immigrant Majorities: Majority of major cities’ populations is immigrants by 1890: 87% in Chicago, 84% in Milwaukee and Detroit, and 80% in New York “Immigrant Ghettoes”: Specific neighborhoods would become settled by one ethnic group, with specific streets often occupied by people from one village or region. New churches, synagogues, imported food stores, newspaper, fraternal organizations preserved homeland ties. For example: In 1893, the Pennsylvania Slovak Association forms to cover burial expenses coal miners killed on the job.

 Economic Advancement: Germans and Jews tended to advance economically more rapidly than Irish or Italians; coming with a distinct skill provided a big advantage. 7

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Lower East Side, 1908 8

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9 

The New Urban Growth

– Assimilation and Exclusion  Young Migrants: Most immigrants were between 15 and 45 years of age, and felt a tension between preserving old ties and assimilating.

 Pressure to Assimilate: Public school classes conducted in English, non-ethnic foodways encouraged, and even in the religious realm, as with Reform Judaism and church leaders encouraging American ways. Settlement houses in immigrant neighborhoods, like Jane Addam’s Hull House founded in 1889 in Chicago, teach adult literacy, hygiene, civics, etc.

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10 

The New Urban Growth

– Assimilation and Exclusion  American Protective Association: This anti-Catholic organization was founded in 1887. Its founder, a self-educated lawyer from Iowa named Henry Bowers, was dedicated to halting all immigration. The organization claimed 500,000 members by 1894.

 Immigration Restriction League: Founded in 1894, five Harvard alumni in Boston founded an organization lobbying for a better “filtering” of immigrants: literacy tests, and other measures to do a better job of keeping out “undesirables.”  Federal Law: In 1882, Congress excluded Chinese immigrants, and strengthened laws against convicts, paupers, and mentally disabled from entering, reinforcing these in the 1890s.

 Cheap Immigrant Labor: More aggressive restrictions did not get far in Congress since the powerful industrial lobby demanded a flow of cheap laborers.

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11 “The Proposed Immigrant Dumping Site,” the cover of the March 22, 1890 issue of the satirical magazine,

Judge.

It depicts Secretary of the Treasury William Windom after he announced that the Castle Garden Emigrant Depot in Manhattan would shut down and a new processing center would be built at the statue’s base on Bedloe’s Island (now Liberty Island). It was of course moved to Ellis Island.

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12 “The High Tide of Immigration—A National Menace,”

Judge,

Aug. 22, 1903

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13 “The Immigrant: Is He an Acquisition or a Detriment?”

Judge,

Oct. 10, 1903

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14 Immigrants arriving at Ellis Island in 1902

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

The Urban Landscape

– The Creation of Public Space  Public Parks: By the mid-nineteenth century, planners and municipal leaders tried provide relief from urban congestion and slum conditions with large parks.  Central Park: In 1858, designers Fredrick Law Olmstead and Calvert Vaux tried to create a space that appeared entirely natural; it was meant to be viewed and appreciated rather than played upon.

 Era of Great Public Institutions: This era saw the building of great urban public museums and libraries. These include Boston’s Museum of Fine Art (1870), New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art (opened 1872) and the New York Public Library (1895, current building opened in 1905), Chicago’s Art Institute (1879, current building 1893), and the Brooklyn Museum (current building opened in 1897).

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Original 1858 “Greensward Plan” for Central Park by Frederick Law Olmstead and Calvert Vaux Frederick Law Olmstead (1822-1903) Calvert Vaux (1824-1895) 16

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The Urban Landscape

Daniel Burnham – The Creation of Public Space  Chicago’s Columbian Exposition of 1893: Buildings of the neo classical “Great White City” designed by architect Daniel Burnham and symmetrical grounds designed by Olmstead become an inspiration for the “City Beautiful” movement; yet the order in the Exposition had little relation to chaotic urban reality.

– Expanding Cities  Landfill and Annexation: Bostonians created a fancy neighborhood called the “Back Bay” by filling in swampland; Chicago reclaimed areas from Lake Michigan, filling in swampy areas to create Lakeshore Drive and the “Gold Coast”; in 1898 New York City annexed Brooklyn, Queens, Staten Island, and the part of the Bronx that it had not yet absorbed.

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18 Views of the 1893 Columbian Exposition’s “White City”

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19 

The Urban Landscape

“Millionaire’s Row” on Fifth Avenue and – The Search for Housing 65 th St. in 1898  Wealthy Dwellings: Well-to-do people had palatial mansion built in neighborhoods like Fifth Avenue in New York, Back Bay and Beacon Hill in Boston, Nob Hill in San Francisco, Society Hill in Philadelphia, Lakeshore Drive in Chicago, etc.  Railroad Suburbs: Some professionals who could not afford mansion in the central city started settling in residential suburbs. Chicago railroads connected to residential suburbs by the 1870s, and Tarrytown and New Rochelle in New York.

 Streetcar Suburbs: More lower-middle class residential development emerged in places like Somerville and Brighton near Boston, in Shaker Heights near Cleveland, and West Philadelphia. The extension of the NYC subway led to middle-class housing in places like Jackson Heights, Queens, and Ditmas Park, Brooklyn, by the early 1900s.

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The Urban Landscape

– The Search for Housing  Urban Density: City landlords tried to squeeze as much profit out their properties, often subdividing buildings into as many apartments as possible. In 1894, Manhattan had a density of 143 people per acre, a density never again seen in European or American cities. In Philadelphia and Baltimore, immigrants found residences in narrow brick row-houses; in Boston, in cheap wood-framed “triple-deckers,” and other places, in slum dwellings known as “tenements,” which often contained small, sometimes window-less dwellings with no running water.  Jacob Riis (1849-1914): Danish immigrant, social reformer, and writer and photographer shocked many middle-class readers with

How the Other Half Lives

(1890), which used flash photography to tenement dwellers’ lives. Riis’s work encouraged reformers to tear down slum dwellings, but they mostly were not replaced by affordable housing. 20

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21 Tenement dwellers from

How the Other Half Lives

(1890)

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22 

The Urban Landscape

– Urban Technologies: Transportation and Construction  Urban Railways: Horse-drawn streetcars had been in use since before the Civil War, but were slow. NYC introduced its first elevated railroad in 1870; Richmond, Virginia, employed the first electric streetcar in 1888; and Boston opened the first subway in 1897 (New York’s was opened in 1903).

 Bridges: John A. Roebling’s Brooklyn Bridge opened in 1883, using a steel-cable suspension system.

 Skyscrapers: Steel skeletons come into use in the 1880s, which along with elevator technology, allow for much taller buildings. The first is considered to be the ten-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, completed in 1884 (pictured above).

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23 

Strains of Urban Life

– Fire and Disease  Fires: Chicago and Boston suffered “Great Fires” in 1871, which encouraged building fireproof structures and the development of professional fire departments.

 Inadequate Sanitation: Flush toilets and underground sewers began to be introduced in the 1870s, but not enough to reduce outbreaks of diseases like typhoid and cholera. Streets were piled with horse dung.

– Environmental Degradation  Air Pollution: Burning of soft coal for heat, cooking, and for factories created a thick smog over many cities, making breathing difficult.

 Public Health Service: The federal government created this service in 1912 to create health standards for factories, but had few powers of enforcement.

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24  S

trains of Urban Life

– Urban Poverty, Crime, and Violence  Public Agencies and Private Philanthropies: Tried to distinguish between the “deserving” and “undeserving poor” in giving out relief, conducting elaborate investigations and interviews.

 Growing Crime Rate: Greater inequality and widespread urban poverty meant a more crime: murder rate went from 25 per million in 1880 to 100 per million in 1900. Crime 

Sister Carrie

(1900): This novel by Theodore Dreiser, considered shocking in its day for its sexual frankness, depicted a single woman from a rural area coming to the big city, where she is exploited by predatory men, but ultimately becomes a vaudeville sensation (that she was not punished for her immoral lifestyle drove critics crazy).

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Strains of Urban Life

– Urban Poverty, Crime, Violence, and Alienation  Public Agencies and Private Philanthropies: Tried to distinguish between the “deserving” and “undeserving poor” in giving out relief, conducting elaborate investigations and interviews, while other groups focused on religious revivalism.

 Growing Crime Rate: Greater inequality and widespread urban poverty meant a more crime: murder rate went from 25 per million in 1880 to 100 per million in 1900. Leaders responded by creating bigger and more professional police forces, but these, too, were often corrupt. Elites built national guard armories to protect fancy neighborhoods from big disturbances, like New York’s 1865 Draft Riots.

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26 

Strains of Urban Life

– The Machine and the Boss  Function of the “Urban Boss”: To win votes for his party was his principal function, and he did so by providing occasional relief for the poor, employment, and patronage: jobs in city government, police, and contracted jobs for the city. Bosses also enriched themselves through graft and corruption.

 William M. Tweed (1823-1878): Boss of New York’s Democratic Tammany Hall machine in the 1860s and early 1870s, but was jailed for his use of public funds and kickbacks in 1872. His organization especially benefitted Irish immigrants.

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27 A few of the famous images by Thomas Nast (1840-1902) that helped to bring Tweed down

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

The Rise of Mass Consumption

– Patterns of Income and Consumption  Rising Income: Rose unevenly, with those at the top enjoying immense wealth, but “white collar” clerks, accountants, and middle-managers saw their income rise by one-third between 1890 and 1910. Females and non-whites saw smaller increases.

 Ready-Made Clothing: The invention of the sewing machine and the Civil War manufacturing of uniforms jump-started this industry (mass-produced clothes existed only for slaves before then). By 1900,, most people wore mass-produced clothing bought from a store, and began to cultivate distinct styles. 28

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29 

The Rise of Mass Consumption

– Chain Stores, Mail-Order Houses, and Department Stores   A & P (Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co.): National chain of grocery stores developed in the 1870s.

F.W Woolworth: National chain of “dry goods” stores began in the late 1870s and early 1880s.  Marshall Field: Began as a dry goods store, but emerged as one of the first modern department stores in Chicago in the 1870s. – Women as Consumers  National Consumers League: Founded in 1899, it was led by Florence Kelly, who encouraged women to buy products that had been produced under fair working conditions.

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Leisure in the Consumer Society

– Redefining Leisure  New Leisure Time: White collar classes and evenings, weekends, and even paid vacations; even industrial laborers and farmers had more time due to mechanization.

 Simon Patten (1852-1922): This influential economist and head of the U. Penn’s Wharton School wrote several books arguing that modern economies produced enough wealth to go around, so people did not have to be frugal and self-restrained all the time, as they had to be in previous centuries.

 New Mass Entertainments: Some new forms of entertainment—like vaudeville—could breach class, race, and gender barrier. Sporting events and saloons remained male preserves. Elites often had very different ideas of leisure than urban working classes. 30

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Leisure in the Consumer Society

– Spectator Sports  Baseball: Evolved from a British game called “rounders” in the early nineteenth century, and was popularized during the Civil War. • First professional team is the Cincinnati Red Stocking founded in 1869, soon joined by other teams in the National League in 1876. • Rival American Association appeared and collapsed between 1882 and 1891, but was replaced by the American League formed in 1901. • First World Series was held in 1903, with the Boston Americans (later Red Sox) beating the Pittsburgh Pirates, five games to three in a best-of nine series. (Between 1901 and 1918: Boston Americans/Red Sox won five world series, and the New York Highlanders/Yankees won zero).

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Leisure in the Consumer Society

– Spectator Sports  Football: The first intercollegiate game was in 1869 between Princeton and Rutgers, and remained an elite sport since it was played only at the college level.

 Boxing: This sport was very popular among working-class audiences, but remained disreputable among the upper and middle classes.

  Basketball Invented: Dr. James A. Naismith (1861-1939) was ordered to create and indoor game in 1891 that was “not too rough” and would keep track athletes in shape over the winter months in Springfield, Mass.

Bicycling: During the 1890s, the new “safety bike” was a popular distraction for middle-class and elite males. 32

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Leisure in the Consumer Society

– Music, Theater, and Movies  Vaudeville: Based on a French model, vaudeville was a series of “variety” acts—comedians, magicians, jugglers, etc.—that was initially inexpensive to produce, at least until big spectacles like “Ziegfeld’s Follies” around 1907; vaudeville also contained aspects of minstrelsy.

 Movies: Edison invents his Kinetoscope in 1888, which requires the viewer to look through a peep hole. In 1905, nickelodeons began appearing in most U.S. cities, which were small storefront movie theaters showing short films that did not have a plot.

 D. W. Griffith (1875-1948): Produced epic silent narrative films that made told stories in a distinctly visual way, such as

Birth of a Nation

(1915) and

Intolerance

(1916).

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Vaudeville posters from the turn of the twentieth century. 34

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35

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36 

Leisure in the Consumer Society

– Patterns of Public and Private Leisure  Public Leisure: Late nineteenth and early twentieth century leisure was more public than in the present. Working-class people went to vaudeville shows, dance halls, and concert halls, while elites went to the opera and promenaded in Central Park.

 Coney Island: In the 1890s, amusement parks—partly inspired by the Columbian Exposition, but in a less uptight way—arose on the Coney Island peninsula. The greatest ones, Luna Park and Dreamland, opened in 1903 and 1904. Luna Park had a 90,000 average daily attendance in 1904. The parks put people in situations that would have been awkward or embarrassing in another context.

 Dime Novels: These were adventures stories, detective stories, Wild West dramas, and sentimental romances published as cheap paperbacks; had formulaic plots and often featured “moral uplift.”

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37 Postcard of Luna Park at night

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

Leisure in the Consumer Society

– The Technologies of Mass Communication  Newspapers: Circulation of daily papers rose from 3 million to 24 million between 1870 and 1910, journalists’ salaries became higher and standards became more professionalized with reporting and opinion became more separate.

 William Randolph Hearst (1863-1951): As the son of a U.S. senator and mining magnate, he bought the

San Francisco Examiner

in 1887, thereby launching a media empire that by the 1920s almost 30 newspapers in major U.S. cities, two wire services, a film company, and several magazines. He pioneered “yellow journalism,” getting his paper intertwined in the affairs leading up to the Spanish-American War, and also pioneered color and photographic printing processes in the 1890s 38

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Richard Outcault’s “The Yellow Kid,” from Hearst’s

New York Journal

. Hearst lured Outcault away from Joseph Pulitzer’s World in 1896.

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40 

Leisure in the Consumer Society

– The Telephone  Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922): He invented the device in 1876, but not until the switchboard came into use in 1878 did it become commercially viable, and even then it only worked over a few miles until the “repeater” was widely introduced in the 1910s.

 The Bell System: The telephone initially was used as a business/corporate tool; in 1891, there 7,400 customers in the NY/NJ area, and 6,000 of these were businesses and organizations. A.T. & T. became a powerful cartel by controlling the equipment and the service itself.

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High Culture in the Urban Age

– Literature and Art in Urban America  Literary Realism: The 1893 novel,

Maggie, A Girl of the Streets

by Stephen Crane (1871-1900) shocked middle-class readers with its graphic depiction of brutal slum life. Theodore Dreiser, Frank Norris, and Upton Sinclair also dealt with the harsh realities and anomie of urban life.  Ashcan School: A 1908 exhibition of Philadelphia artists known as “The Eight” caused a sensation for its realistic depictions of urban, working-class neighborhoods and the darker side of urban life. Among these initial artists was John Sloan, who would rise to prominence. Later artists who became a part of this “ash can” movement (the coin was termed in 1916) included George Bellows and Edward Hopper.

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The Ashcan School 42 John French Sloan,

McSorley’s Bar

(1912 ) George Bellows,

Stag at Sharkey’s

(1909)

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43 

High Culture in the Urban Age

– The Impact of Darwinism   Resistance to Evolution: Acceptance of Darwin’s ideas among educated and urban elites drew a sharper cultural divide between them and rural conservatives; this led to the simultaneous rise of a liberal Protestantism and the beginnings of organized Christian fundamentalism. “Pragmatism”: The first genuinely American philosophical tradition emerged during this time: all ideas and beliefs must be scientifically tested for their overall usefulness and be discarded if they are of no practical value. Thinkers like Charles S. Peirce, Charles Darwin (Library of Congress) John Dewey, and psychologist William James became chief advocates of this school of thought.

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High Culture in the Urban Age

– Toward Universal Schooling  Spread of Free Public Schooling: The demand for specialized skills in the workforce led to greater compulsory public education. Thirty-one states and territories had compulsory (out of forty-five states and four territories).

 Rural and Racial Lag: People living in rural areas often had no access to public schools, while blacks in the South were often excluded.

 Carlisle Indian Industrial School: This Pennsylvania school opened in 1879 in an attempt to “civilize” Indians, but ultimately closed in 1918. It had been a model for a network of Indian boarding schools created by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

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High Culture in the Urban Age

– Universities and the Growth of Science and Technology  Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862: Federal lands were donated to states to create agricultural and technical colleges, which funded the founding of sixty-nine schools that formed the basis of state systems in California, Illinois, Minnesota, and Wisconsin  Economic Impact of Higher Education: State schools and private schools, like MIT (1865), helped advance American industry and science through their research.

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High Culture in the Urban Age

– Medical Science  “Symptoms”: Doctors begin to accept the idea that symptoms were not the disease itself, but outward manifestations of a more complex disease.

 Technologies: X-rays, improved microscopes, and other diagnostic tools improve medicine, as did advances in pharmaceuticals, like the formulation of aspirin in 1899. The invention of blood transfusions in 1906 make more elaborate surgeries possible.

 More Complex Understanding of Germ Theory: Awareness of the causes of infection and other factors aside from germ exposure develop a deeper understanding of illness.

 Declining Mortality: American surgeons and physicians wer viewed as the best in the world, as was American understandings of public health and sanitation issues.

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High Culture in the Urban Age

– Education for Women   Women’s Colleges: Only three colleges were co-during the Civil War, but higher education for elite women became increasingly more available: Vassar (1865), Wellesley and Smith (1875), Bryn Mawr (1885), and Barnard (1889). Emergence of Women’s Communities: These schools were largely run by women. Elite college women tended to marry later, and sometimes did not marry to pursue careers.

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