An Overview of Qualitative Research Methods

Presented by Johnnie Daniel, Ph.D., J.D.

Department of Sociology and Anthropology [email protected]

for the RESPONSIBLE CONDUCT RESEARCH WORKSHOP GRADUATE SCHOOL, HOWARD UNIVERSITY FEBRUARY 13, 2013

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Introduction

Purpose of presentation

 Provide an introduction to qualitative research methods  Provide descriptions of the differences between qualitative research and quantitative research  Provide a basis for further study and investigation of qualitative research  Encourage the use of qualitative research methods

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Learning objectives

 At the end of this presentation you should be able to:  Distinguish between qualitative research and quantitative research in carrying out the following activities:  Problem formation  Research design development  Selection of data sources  Data collection  Data analysis  Conclusion and report writing  Identify and distinguish the major types of qualitative research designs

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What are the differences between qualitative research and quantitative research?

 Qualitative research is research

primarily

involving the collection and analysis of non-numerical data  On the other hand, quantitative research is research

primarily

involving the collection and analysis of numerical data

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 Both follow the same major steps in carrying out a research study  However, due to the nature of the data collected, important differences in how these steps are executed

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Major Steps in Conducting Research

Problem formulation Research design development Data analysis Data collection Conclusion / Report Writing Selection of data sources 8

Problem formation:

Qualitative Research

 Theory development  Exploratory purpose  Description of participants  Comparison of participants  Create in-depth descriptions and understandings of characteristics

Quantitative Research

 Hypothesis and theory testing  Description of population  Comparison of categories within the population  Create in-depth descriptions and understanding of relationship among variables

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Problem formation:

Qualitative Research

 Elucidate findings of quantitative research  Verify the presence of phenomena  Purpose to research is to understand a problem

Quantitative Research

 Verify findings of qualitative research  Identify the causes of phenomena  Purpose of research is to explain and predict the existence of a problem

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Problem formation:

Qualitative Research

 Understand from the point of view of the participants  Interpret experiences and meaning s  Discover theme and relationships  Provide words for closed questions

Quantitative Research

 Understand relationships among variables

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Problem formation:

Qualitative Research

 Discovery and identification of new thought and understandings  Purpose to discover ideas  Exploratory research

Quantitative Research

 Verification of theory, predictions  Purpose to test hypotheses  Conclusive research

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Problem formation:

Qualitative Research

 Program aims at individual outcomes  Theory developed during study  Data precede theory  Complex patterns of interactions among variables not investigated

Quantitative Research

 Program aims at common outcomes  Theory developed a priori  Theory precedes data  Complex patterns of interactions among variables may be investigated

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Research design development:

Qualitative Research

 Participant observation  Focus group research  Case studies  In-depth interviews  Typically no comparison groups  Research design modified as it is implemented

Quantitative Research

 Survey  Numerical databases  Comparison groups  Research design predetermined

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Selection of data sources (study participants)

Qualitative Research

 Nonprobability sampling  Availability sampling  Purposive sampling  Small n  Data saturation, sequential sampling

Quantitative Research

 Probability sampling  Simple random sampling  Stratified sampling  Large n  Sample size predetermined

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Major Types of Purposive Sampling Selection criteria: Elements’ fit or lack of fit with central tendency Bellwether case sampling Typical case sampling Reputational sampling Modal instance sampling Deviant case sampling Rare element sampling Extreme case sampling Intensity case sampling Dichotomous case sampling Outlier sampling Selection criteria: Variability of elements Selection criteria: Theory, model development, and hypothesis testing Selection criteria: Judgment, reputation, or specialized knowledge Homogeneous sampling Confirmatory sampling Disconfirming sampling Critical case sampling Systematic matching sampling Case control sampling Consecutive sampling Politically important cases Expert sampling Informant sampling Maximum variation sampling Heterogeneity sampling Diversity sampling Judgment sampling Subjective sampling Negative case sampling Theoretical sampling 16

Data collection:

Qualitative Research

 Observation  Asking primarily open ended questions  Scalar items seldom used  Unobtrusive data collection  Data: words, pictures, behavior  Greater ethical issues

Quantitative Research

 Asking primarily closed ended questions  Scalar items primarily used  Statistical databases  Data: numbers  Fewer ethical issues

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Data collection:

Qualitative Research

 Researcher interacts at personal level with respondents  Personal values made explicit  Flexible  Unstructured

Quantitative Research

 Researcher seeks to keep personal values, beliefs, and biases separate  Personal values avoided  Not flexible  Structured

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Data collection:

Qualitative Research

 Researcher must be able to fit-in with events/people studied  Data collection environment not controlled  Same questions not necessarily asked to all participants  Data collector may improvise

Quantitative Research

 Researcher can be distant from events/people studied  Data collection environment controlled  Same questions asked to all participants  Data collector should not improvise

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Data collection:

Qualitative Research

 Subjectivity focus  Adaptive data collections   Exact replication not possible Theory is “data driven”  Probing  Information per respondent is substantial

Quantitative Research

 Objectivity focus  Predetermined data collection   Exact replication possible Data are “theory driven”  Limited probing  Information per respondent varies

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Data collection:

Qualitative Research

 Hardware: tape recorders, video, cameras  Training of researcher: psychology, sociology, consumer behavior  Conversation, unstructured

Quantitative Research

 Hardware: computers, telephone  Training of researcher: psychology, sociology, consumer behavior, statistics  Structured observation, interviews, questionnaires

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Data collection:

Qualitative Research

 Contextual variables critical to study  Collect verbatim responses  More limited to collection of data on current patterns  More flexible

Quantitative Research

 Contextual variables not necessarily critical to study  Collect responses to structured items  Less limited to collection of data on current patterns  Less flexible

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Data analysis:

Qualitative Research

 Limited statistical analysis  Inferential statistics are generally irrelevant  Lack of ability to control for extraneous variables  Results cannot be generalized

Quantitative Research

 Basic to advanced multivariate statistical analyses  Inferential statistics are generally essential  Results are generalizable based on inferential statistical analyses

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Data analysis:

Qualitative Research

 Lack of ability to control for extraneous variables  Data processing and analysis time consuming  Varied analyses  Focus on themes and meanings

Quantitative Research

 Potential to control for extraneous variables  Data processing and analysis not as time consuming  Standardized analyses  Focus on trends, comparisons, predictions, explanations

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Data analysis:

Qualitative Research

  Inductive analyses “Thick descriptions”  Validity based on honesty, richness, authenticity, depth, scope, subjectivity, strength of feeling, catching uniqueness, idiographic statements

Quantitative Research

 Deductive analyses  Control of extraneous variables  Validity based on objectivity, generalizability, replicability, predictability, controllability, and nomothetic statements

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Data analysis:

Qualitative Research

 No testing of null hypotheses  No confidence intervals  Meaning rather than numeric descriptions sought

Quantitative Research

 Null hypothesis testing  Confidence intervals  Numeric descriptions sought

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Conclusions / report writing:

Qualitative Research

 Focus on:  Credibility  Dependability  Transferability  Confirmability

Quantitative Research

 Focus on:  Internal validity  Reliability, stability  External validity  Objectivity

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Conclusions / report writing:

Qualitative Research

 Conclusions based on understandings, insight  Conclusions are subjective, speculative

Quantitative Research

 Conclusions based on statistical analyses  Conclusions stated in context of statistical degree of accuracy

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Conclusions / report writing:

Qualitative Research

 Replications lead to tentative generalizations  Predicated on the assumption that each individual, culture, setting is unique

Quantitative Research

  Generalizations based on probabilities Assume “law” or “trends” may be identified

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Conclusions / report writing:

Qualitative Research

 Reports are longer, written in narrative form and published in the form of books or monographs  Narrative descriptions

Quantitative Research

 Reports are commonly reported in journals and only 5-15 pages in length  Statistical descriptions

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What are the major types of qualitative research designs?

Qualitative Research Designs

In-depth Interviews Focus Groups Observation Projective Techniques

Qualitative Data

Ethnography Case Studies Action Research Grounded Theory

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EXHIBIT 5.2

Common Qualitative Research Tools

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EXHIBIT 5.2

Common Qualitative Research Tools (cont’d)

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Choosing a Qualitative Method

Purpose of study Researcher characteristics Participant characteristics Factors Ethical concerns Resources Nature of topic 35

Challenge: Mixed-Methods Research Designs

Qualitative Research Design Mixed Methods Research Design Quantitative Research Design 36