Transcript Chapter 2 - Power Point summary
C
HAPTER
R
ESEARCH
2: T
HE
P S
OCIOLOGICAL ROCESS
(& S
CIENTIFIC
M
ETHOD
)
W
HY
R
ESEARCH
S
OCIOLOGY
?
Common sense versus research
Often mutually exclusive…consider suicides
Common sense
“People who threaten suicide, don’t commit suicide”
In most cases the opposite is true
Research
Emile Durkheim, perhaps the first to use the scientific method in sociological studies
Suicide and issues of cohesiveness High suicide rate associated with large scale societal problems (dysfunction: Functionalist approach)
S
CIENTIFIC
E
VIDENCE
In Sociology, used to debunk fallacies and interpretations in society.
(Unmasking or correcting mistaken ideas)
Must first acknowledge values and beliefs Normative and Empirical Normative: uses religion, habits, law, etc. to answer questions about beliefs Empirical: uses systematic collection and analysis of data to derive answers Descriptive (Facts about whom, where, and when) Explanatory (Facts about cause and effect)
T
HEORY AND
R
ESEARCH
Describe, predict, collect
Deductive approach
Theory Hypothesis Observation Generalization
Inductive approach
Observation Generalization Theory Hypothesis
Q
UANTITATIVE AND
R
ESEARCH
Q
UALITATIVE
Quantitative
Scientific Objectivity
Comparing data to variables Numbers rather than words
“Quant-” is like quantity
Qualitative
Interpretive Description
Subject to opinion, or misunderstanding Words rather than numbers
Qualitative is opinion
Example: it is hot outside
Example: the temperature outside is 37 °C
H
YPOTHESIS AND
V
ARIABLES
A hypothesis is a statement of the relationship between two (or more) concepts
Concepts are abstract elements like “loneliness” or “social integration”
A variable is any concept with measurable traits or characteristics (and are subject to change from situation to situation)
They are the observable (or measurable) counterparts of concepts
Example: “Suicide” is a concept, the “rate of suicide” is a variable
Two types of variables, independent and dependent
I
NDEPENDENT AND
V
ARIABLES
D
EPENDENT
Independent Dependent
Is presumed to “cause” the dependent variable
Age, sex, or affiliation are often used as independent variables Cause
“Depends” on the independent variable
In suicide, the rate of suicide depended upon social integration Effect (of change in independent variable) o Operational Definition: explanation of an abstract concept • Example: You receive an “A,” but what exactly does an “A” mean, put it into perspective, or operationalize it
Durkheim’s analysis of about 26,000 suicides, classified from age to method of suicide, revealed that there were four distinct categories of suicide
Egoistic, Altruistic, Anomic, and Fatalistic Egoistic: Isolation from social group, i.e. loneliness Altruistic: Excessive integration, i.e. loss of cause and of self, and thus loss of will to live Anomic: Lack of shared values, i.e. rapid social change Fatalistic: Excessive regulation, oppression i.e. suicide of slaves, prisoners Validity and Reliability Validity: extent to which study measures what was supposed to be measured Reliability: consistent results among subjects Durkheim concluded that the degree of social integration contributed to suicide rates, low integration resulted in higher rates.
This is an Inverse causal relationship. (or indirect variable) Causal would be high integration and high rates. (or direct variable) Whereas Multi causal would analyze more than one factor in establishing variables.
R
ESEARCH
M
ETHODS
Specific strategies or techniques for systematically conducting research.
There are four widely used (and acceptable) methods for collecting data, both quantitatively and qualitatively.
Quantitative
Survey (Questionnaires) Secondary Analysis (Unobtrusive research) Experiments (Laboratory or Natural setting)
Qualitative
Survey (Personal Interview) Secondary Analysis (Cultural artifacts) Field Research (Case studies, Ethnography, Unstructured Interviews)
Survey Questionnaire
Printed research instrument, with a series of items for subjects to respond
Often self-administered, “agree or disagree” responses Secondary analysis Unobtrusive (statistical) research
Using existing material to analyze data (trends or correlations) gathered by others
Often gathered from public research sites, uses raw data Experiments Laboratory setting
Designed to recreate “real-life” situations, while monitoring a multitude of variables
Experimental group (exposed to independent variable) or Control group (not exposed to independent variable to maintain baseline)
Natural setting
Real setting, such as flood or other disaster, provides researchers with “living laboratories”
Cannot be replicated (in almost all circumstances), nor would it often be ethical to do so
Survey, Pros and Cons:
Pros: Able to reach large populations, multiple variable friendly, able to monitor social change on large scale Cons: Respondents may or may not fit category, truthfulness?, sometimes cannot display “hard facts” (like laws or policy)
Secondary Analysis, Pros and Cons:
Pros: Inexpensive and readily available, low bias risk, historical context Cons: May be incomplete or unauthentic, may not be correlated, difficult to categorize
(Pros and Cons of methods continued on next slide)
Survey Personal Interview
Data-collection encounter in which interviewer asks the respondent questions
Can be subject to bias; misinterpretation of questions, altered behavior towards interviewer Secondary Analysis Cultural Artifacts
Examination of cultural artifacts or forms of communication to extract thematic data about social life
Typical materials include: written records (diaries), visual texts (movies), material culture (music, clothes), and even behavior residues (wear marks in a floor) Field Research Participant Observation Collecting data while being a part of the activities of the group of study Case Study An in-depth multifaceted investigation of a single event, person, or group.
Ethnography Detailed study of a group by researchers who may live with that group over a period of years Unstructured Interview Extended, open-ended interview, often in-depth Experiments, Pros and Cons:
Pros: Degree of control over variables, limited number of subjects, high degree of replication Cons: Not truly real scenarios, prone to bias, sometimes hard on subjects, “Hawthorne effect “ the changing of behavior as a result of observer
Field Research, Pros and Cons:
Pros: Most realistic setting, large amounts of data, everyone can be a part of study Cons: May or may not be indicative of larger population, cannot be precisely measured
R
EFERENCES AND
A
CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
o
Sociology In Our Times (Seventh Edition)
o By: Diana Kendall o
Notes incorporated
o By: James V. Thomas, NIU Professor (Emeritus) o Formatted By: Jacob R. Kalnins, NIU student o
Pictures Incorporated
o Clip Art (PowerPoint: 2007) o Google Images: Sociology In Our Times