Transcript chapter ??
Basic Concepts
Objectives
• Define play, recreation, and leisure as three distinct
terms.
• Compare and contrast play, recreation, and leisure
as three distinct behaviors.
• Provide an overview of the early theories related to
play.
• Discuss the role of play in childhood development.
What is Play?
• We can…
– Go to or act in a play….
– Play a musical instrument….
– Play a game….
– Play a prank….
– Play dumb….
– Play the stock market….
– Play with someone’s mind…..
– Play havoc with the state of affairs….
– Play teacher, cowboys and Indians….
Elements of Play?
• Children
• aimless, casual,
disorganized
• spontaneous,
uninhibited, joyful
• simple
• fun, frolic, frivolous
• non-serious
• Adults
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highly structured
more constrained
complex rules
serious
risk and intense
commitment
The Meaning of Play
Historical Perspectives
Greece - valuable role in the lives of children
Catholic Church - play becomes regarded as a social threat
• Body thought to detract from spiritual values
• Effort to curb pleasure pursuits
Educators and philosophers defend play
Important aspect of childhood education
Early Theories of Play
Surplus Energy Theory - Herbert Spencer
Play motivated by the need to burn up excess energy
Play as an imitation of adult activities
“predatory instincts”
Predatory instincts
Recreation Theory - Maurice Lazarus
Play was to conserve or restore energy
Distinguished between mental and physical energy
Change in activity (physical exercise) can restore one’s
nervous energy
Emphasis on physical exercise
Desk clerk who plays tennis
Early Theories of Play (cont’d)
Instinct-Practice Theory - Karl Groos
Play helped animals survive by enabling them to practice skills for adult life
The role of protected infancy and childhood for play and the development of
adult skills
Catharsis Theory - Harvey Carr
Theory based upon Greek philosophy
View that play serves as a safety valve for bottled up emotions
What did Aristotle think about this?
Play provides an acceptable channel for expression of aggression or hostility
Based on Carr’s view….what does he think of organized play?
What does this do for society?
Give an example of how organized play has been used recently?
20th Century Concepts of Play
Self-Expression Theory - Mitchell and Mason
Play as a need for self-expression
Specific types of activity are influenced by
• Physiology
• Anatomy
• Fitness level
• Environment
• Family and social background
20th Century Concepts of Play (cont’d)
Self-Expression Theory (Continued)
Certain universal wishes shape attitudes and habits
• Wish for new experience
• Wish for participation in a group enterprise
• Wish for security
• Wish for response and recognition
• Wish for the aesthetic
20th Century Concepts of Play (cont’d)
Play as a Social Necessity - Joseph Lee
Play as a force in child development and community
life
Play contributed to wholesome development of
character through lessons of:
• Discipline
• Sacrifice
• Morality
• Why is Joseph Lee important to us?
– He is the “Father of the ‘Playground
Movement’”
20th Century Concepts of Play (cont’d)
Play as a Social Necessity (Continued)
Vital element of community life
Useful form of manual training
• Coordinated bodily functions
• Promoted health
• Prepared children for indoor confinement of
schools and factory life
20th Century Concepts of Play (cont’d)
Play element in culture - Johan Huizinga
• Play pervades all of life, with its own ethical
value
• War as play
– High risk sports: hang gliding, ultimate fighting
• Play in the business world
– Development of new technology, advertising
strategies
– Investment game….is gambling
Psychological Analysis of Play
Play in personality development (Lawrence Frank)
Play provides an opportunity for children to learn about the
world
Psychoanalytical perspectives on play (Sigmund Freud)
Method to gain control and competence…and resolve
conflicts
Play represents the child's way of dealing with reality
Role of play in treatment and education
Psychological Analysis of Play (cont’d)
Competence-Effectance Theory
Cziksentmihalyi's "Flow" principle
Play as a process of matching skill to task
Activity :
(Please use the subject of “play theory”)
• Select a play theory you find to be most
meaningful to you and explain why.
Csikszentmihalyi saw optimal activities in the "flow"
channel moving outward as skills are gained, and
certainly before apathy sets in - clearly this parallels
Vygotsky's theory of proximal development in learning
situations.
Here Csikszentmihalyi summarized the results of his
empirical research in terms of the main feelings
reported for the various combinations of skills and
challenge in the various activities undertaken.
How does it feel to be in "the flow"?
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Completely involved, focused, concentrating - with this either due to innate
curiosity or as the result of training
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Sense of ecstasy - of being outside everyday reality
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Great inner clarity - knowing what needs to be done and how well it is going
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Knowing the activity is doable - that the skills are adequate, and neither
anxious or bored
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Sense of serenity - no worries about self, feeling of growing beyond the
boundaries of ego - afterwards feeling of transcending ego in ways not thought
possible
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Timeliness - thoroughly focused on present, don't notice time passing
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Intrinsic motivation - whatever produces "flow" becomes its own reward
Playground Discussion:
Think of a vivid memory of an optimal
experience. Describe it and tell why you
believe it was an optimal experience for you.
Were you in a “flow” state of mind?
Play Defined
• A form of human or animal activity or behavioral style that
is self-motivated and carried on for intrinsic, rather than
external, purposes.
– Generally pleasurable
– Often marked by elements of
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competition
Humor
Creative exploration
Problem solving
Mimicry or role playing
– Most often appears in leisure but CAN be found in work!
– Typically marked by freedom and lack of structure BUT,
• May involve rules and prescribed actions (sports and games).
The Meaning of Leisure (6 views)
Classical Value
Activity performed for its own sake - Aristotle
Problems with classical view:
Linked to the idea of an aristocratic class structure
Today: Leisure must be available to ALL!!!!
Work and leisure were totally opposite
Today: Leisure must exist side by side with work that is respected in
our society
The Meaning of Leisure (cont’d)
Leisure as a Symbol of Social Class – Veblen
Historically, one’s wealth was identified through their possessions and
leisure
Theory of the Leisure Class
Possession and visible us of leisure = “hallmark of the upper class”
Attacked “idle rich”
Coined the phrase “conspicuous consumption” to describe their way of life
Is this theory plausible today?
Maybe not, why?
Maybe yes, why?
The Meaning of Leisure (cont’d)
Leisure as Unobligated Time
Most common approach to to leisure
– unobligated or discretionary time!
Time free from work or work-related responsibilities
Excludes time devoted to essential life-maintenance activities
Built-in problems with this approach?
Is one ever totally free from obligation?
Is all leisure solely intrinsic?
Semi-leisure declining to “anti-leisure” concepts
The role of concept of obligation
The Meaning of Leisure (cont’d)
Leisure as Activity - Berger
Leisure closely related to recreation and activity
J.B. Nash said leisure is “doing something”
Why might “leisure as an activity” be problematic?
Makes little allowance for low-activity leisure pursuits
Feminists claim some women’s lives can not be categorized in a work/leisure dichotomy
Does not account for individual perceptions about particular activities
Leisure as a State of Being Marked by Freedom (state of mind)
Perceived freedom of the activity
Leisure as promoting personal fulfillment and self-enrichment
Leisure as part of a holistic lifestyle
The Meaning of Leisure (cont’d)
Leisure as Spiritual Expression
Leisure as uplifting the human experience
Emphasis on the link between leisure and religion
Modern society makes it difficult to pursue spiritual expression through
leisure
The Meaning of Leisure (cont’d)
Leisure Seen in Relation to Work
Compensatory Theory of Leisure
Leisure is opposite of work
Spillover Theory of Leisure
Leisure is an extension of work
Note Russell's 3 perspectives of work and leisure
Pessimistic
View work in negative light and leisure is needed to counter problems associated with work
Neutral
View leisure and work as separate life domains that may or may not be related
Optimistic
Personal satisfaction with work and leisure is required for a healthy existence
The Meaning of Leisure (cont’d)
Leisure Defined:
Portion of time not directly connected to work or work
responsibilities
Implies freedom and choice
Used to meet one's need for reflection, self-enrichment,
relaxation, or pleasure
May be regarded as a holistic state of being and/or
spiritual experience
The Meaning of Recreation
Recreation represents a fusion
between play and leisure
Recreation - that which refreshes or
restores
Holds the potential for being pleasant,
rewarding, and creative
Image courtesy of the author.
Three Common Treads of Leisure:
Contemporary Definitions
• Leisure as Free Time
• Leisure as a Recreational Activity
• Leisure as an Attitude
Leisure as Free Time
• Time free from obligations
• Leftover time apart from work….
• Quantifiable
• Time not needed for productivity
Leisure as a Recreational Activity
• Participation based
• Doing something or some activity
• Non-work activity
• Sports, hobbies, dance, travel….
• Freely chosen and benefits the
participant (Kelly)
Leisure as an Attitude
• A state of mind
• Way of life
• A philosophy about living
• An entire way of being
• Psychological condition
Group Activity
(Please use the subject of Leisure definition)
• Which contemporary definition of leisure fits
you best and why in your assigned group area.
– Leisure as Free Time
– Leisure as a Recreational Activity
– Leisure as an Attitude
Participation & Motives in Recreation
• Participation
– Generally recreation is voluntary, but this is not always the case. Why?
• Motives
– Generally most definitions stress recreation should be conducted for
personal enjoyment or pleasure.
• Why might is not always be the case?
– Why do we participate (motivates)?
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Socializing behaviors
Associative behaviors
Competitive behaviors
Risk-taking behaviors
Exploratory behaviors
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Vicarious experience
Sensory stimulation
Physical involvement for its own sake
Creativity
Intellectual
volunteerism
Contemporary Definitions
Recreation as an Emotional State
Recreation perceived as the outcome of participation – “peek
experience in self-satisfaction” Gray and Greben
Depth of involvement
Social Acceptability
Must recreation be wholesome, healthful, or beneficial?
Examples of some that may not be???
Determination of social value often subjective
Social context must be considered and applied
Contemporary Definitions (cont’d)
Recreation as a Social Institution
Recreation as a social construct
Influence of traditions, values, channels of communication, formal
relationships, and institutional aspects
Leisure as contributing to "social capital“
Role of recreation in community development
Leisure opportunity and "social justice"
Contemporary Definitions (cont’d)
Recreation Defined
Human activities or experiences that occur during leisure time
Usually voluntary
Often selected for intrinsic pleasure
May involve a degree of compulsion, extrinsic purpose and
discomfort, pain, and/or anger
Should be socially constructive and morally acceptable in
terms of prevailing community standards and values