Transcript File
China
The World’s Leading Manufacturer of
Chinese People
Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Legitimacy
– Dynastic Rule (ancient history – 1911)
Power passed through hereditary connections
“Mandate of Heaven” – collective ancestral wisdom
guiding the empire from the heavens
When a family dynasty was perceived as weak, a
rival family would challenge, claiming the emperor
had lost the mandate
Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Legitimacy
– Revolution of 1911 and Chinese Republic
Dynastic cycles toppled due to European intrusion
Supposed to be democratic, but government was
regularly challenged by regional warlords
– Mao and the People’s Republic (1949-1976)
Mao Zedong and ideology of egalitarian Marxism
Mao himself served as the unifying source of
legitimacy
Maoism insisted on “mass line” – leaders must
listen to and stay connected to peasants
Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Legitimacy
– Modern China (1976-Present)
Legitimacy centers in the Politburo of the CCP
Central Military Commission within the CCP
controls the military (another important source of
legitimacy)
Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Historical Traditions
– Authoritarian Power – has always been ruled
by a single emperor or a small group
– Confucianism – emphasizes the importance of
order and harmony, encourages Chinese
people to submit to and obey authority
Also places responsibility on rulers to exercise
power conscientiously (democratic centralism?)
Contradicts egalitarian Marxism
Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Historical Traditions
– Bureaucratic hierarchy based on scholarship –
ruling elite are organized and selected based
on academic exams
Government jobs have always been highly coveted
Created social separation between peasants and
bureaucratic elite
– The “Middle Kingdom” – belief that China is
the center of civilization, and foreigners are
perceived as inferiors with nothing to offer
Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Historical Traditions
– Communist ideologies – Maoism integrated
ethics of Confucianism with egalitarianism,
later revised by Deng Xiaoping to allow for
privatization
Political Culture
Geography
– Access to oceans and warm water ports
– Many large navigable rivers
– Major geographic divides between north and
south
– Geographic isolation of the western part
– Separated from other countries by mountain
ranges, deserts, and oceans
Political Culture
Historical Eras
– Dynastic Rule (Confucianism, ethnocentrism)
– Resistance to Imperialism 19th Century
(nationalism)
“foreign devils” – Europeans and Japanese who
attempted to exploit China’s natural resources
Evidence of caution and suspicion of capitalist
countries remains
Political Culture
Historical Eras
– Maoism (linked to Marxism/Leninism, but
distinctly Chinese)
Collectivism – good of the community above the
individual
Struggle and activism
Mass Line
Egalitarianism
Self-Reliance – don’t rely on elites, use your own
talents to contribute to your community
Mao Zedong
Chairman of the CCP
1943-1976
Chairman of the
Central Military
Commission
1954-1976
Political Culture
Historical Eras
– Deng Xiaoping Theory
“Black cat, white cat, who cares as long as it
catches mice?”
Communist and capitalist ideologies were not
important
What matters is improving the economy
Still emphasizes party supervision and control of all
activity in the country
Deng Xiaoping
Chairman of the
Central Military
Commission
1981-1989
Political Culture
Importance of Informal Relationships
– Power and respect is not necessarily tied to
official position in the party, but who has
connections to whom
– Early connections established during the Long
March built later ruling cliques
– Patron-client system exists amongst
competing party factions
– Policy changes can be predicted with
knowledge of relationships to past leaders
Political and Economic Change
Long history of stability until 20th century mirrors
Russia
Differs from Russia in having a much longer
history of regional hegemony
Dynastic cycles dictated change until Mongols
conquer China in 13th century
– Mandate of heaven recaptured by Ming dynasty
– Last dynasty was Qing (“pure”) from 17th century
until it was toppled by European pressure in 20th
Political and Economic Change
Control by Imperialistic Nations
– Qing dynasty weakened and China was carved into
“spheres of influence” by England, Germany, France,
and Japan (foreign devils)
Revolutionary Upheaval (1911-1949)
– Nationalism – Sun Yat-sen leads a nationalist
revolution reestablishing independent China in 1911
– Establishment of a new political community
Chiang Kai-shek founds the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang or
KMT)
Mao Zedong founds the CCP
– Socioeconomic Development – modeled after Soviets,
then Chiang becomes president and breaks with
them, outlawing the CCP
Chiang Kai-Shek
Chairman of the
Nationalist
Government of
China, 1928-1931,
1943-1948
Director General of
Kuomintang,
1938-1975
Political and Economic Change
The Long March (1934-1936)
– Chiang’s Nationalist army pursued Mao’s army
across China to depose and exile communists
– Mao eluded him and used the time traveling
to spread his message to Chinese peasants
– Mao becomes a national hero, people involved
in the Long March become prominent in
government of the People’s Republic
Political and Economic Change
Founding of the People’s Republic of China
(1949-1966)
– Occupied by Japan until end of WWII
– Civil War between Kuomintang and CCP
– Chiang flees to Taiwan, Mao establishes
People’s Republic on mainland, both claim to
be the true government of China (“Two
Chinas”)
Political and Economic Change
Founding of the People’s Republic of China
(1949-1966)
– Soviet model of political/economic
development (1949-1957)
Land reform – redistribution of property
Civil reform – attempted to end opium addiction
and expand women’s rights (like the right to leave
an unhappy arranged marriage)
Five-Year Plans – nationalization of industry and
collectivization of agriculture
Political and Economic Change
Founding of the People’s Republic of China
(1949-1966)
– Great Leap Forward (1958-1966)
Attempt to end Soviet domination of China
All-around development of agriculture and industry
Mass mobilization – turn the Chinese population
into an asset through motivation and harder work
Political unanimity and zeal – party workers began
running government, not bureaucrats
– Cadres – low level party workers expected to
demonstrate Party devotion by motivating hard work
Decentralization – more local, less central control
Political and Economic Change
The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)
– From 1960-1966, Mao allowed Liu Shaoqi and Deng
Xiaoping to institute market reforms
– Dissatisfied with results, decided to radically
transform China and remove all vestiges of hierarchy
and inequality
– Principles
Ethic of struggle
Mass line
Collectivism
Egalitarianism
Unstinting service to society
– Destroyed universities and libraries, scholars were
sent to the fields to work and “learn” from peasants
– Elementary education designed to create equality and
loyalty to Mao
Signs from the Cultural Revolution
“Destroy the Old
World, Build a New
World”
Signs from the Cultural Revolution
“Let new socialistic
culture conquer
every stage”
Features Jiang
Qing, who led the
Cultural Revolution
Group of the
Politburo
Signs from the Cultural Revolution
“We will crash the
dog heads of those
who oppose
Chairman Mao!”
Political and Economic Change
Death of Mao (1976)
– Followers in CCP divided into 3 factions
Radicals – led by Mao’s wife Jiang Qing, continued supporting
goals of Cultural Revolution
– “Gang of Four” – group of radicals who controlled CCP policy
toward the end of Mao’s life
Military – had been led by Lin Biao, Mao’s designated
successor, but he died in a mysterious plane crash in 1971
– Rumors of an attempted coup around same time
Moderates – led by Zhou Enlai, emphasized economic
modernization and limited contact with the West
– Factions were built on ideology and personal
connection (guanxi)
Jiang Qing
– First Lady of the PRC,
1939-1976
– Leader of the Radical
faction of the CCP
Lin Biao
– Vice-Premier of the
PRC, 1965-1971
Zhou Enlai
– Premier of the PRC,
1949-1976
– Leader of the
moderate faction of
the CCP
Political and Economic Change
Deng Xiaoping’s Four Modernizations (19781997)
– CCP leader Hua Guofeng arrests the “Gang of Four”
radicals, opening the door for moderates to take
control
– Deng takes power in 1978 (without official title of
Chairman of CCP), modernizing:
Industry
Agriculture
Science
The Military
Political and Economic Change
Deng Xiaoping’s Four Modernizations
(1978-1997)
– “Open Door” trade policy – trade with
everyone, including capitalist U.S. if it will
benefit Chinese economy
– Expansion of higher education, raised
academic standards
– Institutionalization of the Revolution –
reconciled revolutionary goals with legal
system and bureaucracy of Old China,
decentralized government
Deng Xiaoping,
later in life
Cryptkeeper,
1989-1997
(Just kidding)
Summary of “Four Generations” of
Chinese Leadership
1st Generation – Mao Zedong (1949 - 1976)
2nd Generation – Deng Xiaoping (1978 – 1997)
3rd Generation – Jiang Zemin (1997-2005)
4th Generation – Hu Jintao (2005 – Present)
Jiang Zemin
– President of the PRC,
1993-2003
– General Secretary of
the CCP, 1989-2002
– Chairman of the
Central Military
Commission, 19902004
Hu Jintao
– President of the PRC,
2003-Present
– General Secretary of
the CCP, 2002–Present
– Chairman of the Central
Military Commission,
2004-Present
– Orderly, struggle free
succession indicated
stability in CCP
practices
Citizens, Society, and the State
Cleavages
– Ethnicity
Population is over 90% Han Chinese
Minorities live primarily in autonomous areas (like
Tibet and Xinjiang)
– These areas are 60% of Chinese territory
– Long history of resistance to Chinese government
Tibetans – government never recognized Chinese
government authority after conquest
Uighurs – Muslim separatists in Xingjiang near
Afghanistan
Government usually encourages economic
development, while suppressing expression of
dissent
Han Chinese
Uighur
Tibetan
Citizens, Society, and the State
Cleavages
– Urban vs. Rural
Redefinition of “Two Chinas” – differences in
economic prosperity and lifestyle
Declaration of Prime Minister Wen Jiabao of a “new
socialist countryside” – program to lift rural economy
Citizens, Society, and the State
Political Participation
– The Chinese Communist Party
Largest Party in the world, 58 million members (8%
of people over 18)
CCP Youth League has 70 million members
Cadres of Mao have been replaced by technocrats
under Deng’s reforms
– Technocrat – people with appropriate technical skills and
training to work in bureaucracy
Jiang opened party membership to capitalists to
“better represent all of China” (2001)
Party is not ideological, but an instrument through
which people can advance their personal situation
Citizens, Society, and the State
Political Participation
– Civil Society
Control of party has loosened with new technology
(cell phones, internet, satellite dishes, etc.)
Many new associational groups dedicated to
individual issues springing up
– Ex. Environmental groups protesting dam construction
Won’t “win”, but still demonstrate ability to organize
without government
Beijing allowed NGOs to register with government in
1990s
Still closely watched by government (especially
religious and human rights movements)
– Ex. Falun Gong, banned in China
Citizens, Society, and the State
Political Participation
– Protests
Allowed to an extent, but met with severe crackdown
if the party’s authority is called into question
Tiananmen Square (1989)
– Protest by students for democratic reform, eventually
attracted many other civil society groups
– Spread to many other areas of China than Beijing
– Deng ordered People’s Liberation Army (PLA) expel the
protesters from the Square, resulting in massacre
Political Institutions
CCP Organization
– Hierarchical
National
Province
County
Village/Township
– Power concentrated at top in Politburo and
General Secretary
Politburo Standing
Committee
7 members
Politburo
24 members
Central Committee
-340 members
-Meet once a year
National Party Congress
-More than 2000 members
-Chosen from lower level
Congresses
-Meets once every 5 years
General
Secretary
Political Institutions
Other political parties
– Eight “democratic” parties are allowed to exist
Each based on a special group, like intellectuals,
businessmen, etc.
Total membership of half a million people
Serve an advisory role to CCP, non-oppositional
– Other attempts at independent party formation result
in harsh prison sentences
Elections (yes, elections)
– CCP runs elections to help legitimacy
– Party reviews candidate list to eliminate objectionable
ones
– Only held at local level of government, deputies for
county People’s Congresses, town and village officials
(since 1980’s)
Political Institutions
The Political Elite
– Personal connection, “guanxi,” holds politics
together
– Elite recruitment occurs through
nomenklatura – higher party leaders choose
leaders at lower levels to move up
– Patron-client network throughout government
Political Institutions
Factions within CCP
– Conservatives – believe power of government has
eroded too much, support crackdowns on
independent thinkers
– Reformers/Open Door – support capitalist infusion,
pushing for WTO membership and expansion of trade
with U.S.
Jiang, Hu, and Wen all come from this faction
– Liberals – support political liberalization, out of power
since Tiananmen in 1989
Premier Zhao Ziyang ousted for sympathizing with protesters
– Fang-shou – cyclical tendency of factions to grow and
fade in power, similar to dynastic cycles