NUMERICAL CONTROL AND INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
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Transcript NUMERICAL CONTROL AND INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
Lecture # 11
AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGIES
FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
1.
2.
3.
4.
Automation Fundamentals
Hardware Components for Automation
Numerical Control
Industrial Robotics
Manufacturing Systems
A manufacturing system can be defined as a collection of
integrated equipment and human resources that
performs one or more processing and/or assembly
operations on a starting work material, part, or set of
parts
The integrated equipment consists of production
machines, material handling and positioning devices,
and computer systems
The manufacturing systems accomplish the valueadded work on the part or product
Automation Fundamentals
Automation can be defined as the technology by which
a process or procedure is performed without human
assistance
Humans may be present, but the process itself
operates under is own self-direction
Three components of an automated system:
1. Power
2. A program of instructions
3. A control system to carry out the instructions
Two Types of Control System
(a) Closed loop and (b) open loop
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Three Basic Types of Automation
Fixed automation - the processing or assembly steps
and their sequence are fixed by the equipment
configuration
Programmable automation - equipment is designed
with the capability to change the program of
instructions to allow production of different parts or
products
Flexible automation - an extension of programmable
automation in which there is virtually no lost
production time for setup changes or reprogramming
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Features of
Fixed Automation
High initial investment for specialized equipment
High production rates
The program of instructions cannot be easily changed
because it is fixed by the equipment configuration
Thus, little or no flexibility to accommodate product
variety
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Features of
Programmable Automation
High investment in general purpose equipment that
can be reprogrammed
Ability to cope with product variety by reprogramming
the equipment
Suited to batch production of different product and
part styles
Lost production time to reprogram and change the
physical setup
Lower production rates than fixed automation
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Features of
Flexible Automation
High investment cost for custom-engineered
equipment
Capable of producing a mixture of different parts or
products without lost production time for changeovers
and reprogramming
Thus, continuous production of different part or
product styles
Medium production rates
Between fixed and programmable automation types
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Hardware Components for
Automation
Sensors
Actuators
Interface devices
Process controllers - usually computer-based devices
such as a programmable logic controller
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Sensors
A sensor is a device that converts a physical stimulus or
variable of interest (e.g., force, temperature) into a
more convenient physical form (e.g., electrical voltage)
for purpose of measuring the variable
Two types
An analog sensor measures a continuous analog
variable and converts it into a continuous signal
A discrete sensor produces a signal that can have
only a limited number of values
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Actuators
An actuator is a device that converts a control signal
into a physical action, usually a change in a process
input parameter
The action is typically mechanical, such as a change
in position of a worktable or speed of a motor
The control signal is usually low level, and an
amplifier may be required to increase the power of
the signal to drive the actuator
Amplifiers are electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Interface Devices
Interface devices allow the process to be connected
to the controller and vice versa
Sensor signals form the process are fed into the
controller
Command signals from the controller are sent to
the process
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Process Controllers
Most process control systems use some type of
digital computer as the controller
Requirements for real-time computer control:
Respond to incoming signals from process
Transmit commands to the process
Execute certain actions at specific points in time
Communicate with other computers that may be
connected to the process
Accept inputs from operating personnel
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs)
A PLC is a microcomputer-based controller that uses
stored instructions in programmable memory to
implement logic, sequencing, timing, counting, and
arithmetic control functions, through digital or analog
input/output modules, for controlling machines and
processes
PLCs are widely used process controllers that satisfy
the preceding real-time controller requirements
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Major Components of a
Programmable Logic Controller
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Numerical Control
A form of programmable automation in which the
mechanical actions of a piece of equipment are
controlled by a program containing coded
alphanumeric data
The data represent relative positions between a
workhead (e.g., a cutting tool) and a workpart
NC operating principle is to control the motion of the
workhead relative to the workpart and to control the
sequence of motions
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Components of a NC System
1. Part program - detailed set of commands to be
followed by the processing equipment
2. Machine control unit (MCU) - microcomputer that
stores and executes the program by converting each
command into actions by the processing equipment,
one command at a time
3. Processing equipment - accomplishes the sequence
of processing steps to transform the starting
workpart into completed part
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
NC Coordinate System
Consists of three linear axes (x, y, z) of Cartesian
coordinate system, plus three rotational axes (a, b, c)
Rotational axes are used to orient workpart or
workhead to access different surfaces for
machining
Most NC systems do not require all six axes
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
NC Coordinate Systems
Coordinate systems used in numerical control: (a) for
flat and prismatic work and (b) for rotational work
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
NC Motion Control Systems
Two types:
1. Point-to-point
2. Continuous path
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Point-to-Point (PTP) System
Workhead (or workpiece) is moved to a programmed
location with no regard for the path taken to get to
that location
When the move is completed, some processing
action is performed by the workhead
Examples: drilling a hole
Thus, the part program consists of a series of point
locations at which operations are performed
Also called positioning systems
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Continuous Path (CP) System
Continuous simultaneous control of more than one axis,
thus controlling path followed by tool relative to part
Permits tool to perform a process while axes are
moving, enabling system to generate angular
surfaces, two-dimensional curves, or 3-D contours in
a workpart
Examples: many milling and turning operations,
flame cutting
Also called contouring in machining operations
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Two Types of Positioning
Absolute positioning
Locations are always
defined with respect
to origin of axis
system
Incremental positioning
Next location is
defined relative to
present location
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
NC Positioning System
Motor and leadscrew arrangement in a numerical
control positioning system
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
NC Positioning System
Converts the coordinates specified in the NC part program
into relative positions and velocities between tool and
workpart
Leadscrew pitch p - table is moved a distance equal
to the pitch for each revolution
Table velocity (e.g., feed rate in machining) is set by
the RPM of leadscrew
To provide x-y capability, a single-axis system is
piggybacked on top of a second perpendicular axis
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Two Basic Types of Control in
Numerical Control
Open loop system
Operates without verifying that the actual position
is equal to the specified position
Closed loop control system
Uses feedback measurement to verify that the
actual position is equal to the specified location
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Two Basic Types of Control in
Numerical Control
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Operation of an Optical Encoder
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Precision in Positioning
Three critical measures of precision in positioning:
1. Control resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Repeatability
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Control Resolution (CR)
Defined as the distance between two adjacent control
points in the axis movement
Control points are locations along the axis to which
the worktable can be directed to go
CR depends on:
Electromechanical components of positioning
system
Number of bits used by controller to define axis
coordinate location
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Control Points along Linear Axis
A portion of a linear positioning system axis, indicating
control resolution, accuracy, and repeatability
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Statistical Distribution of
Mechanical Errors
When a positioning system is directed to move to a
given control point, the movement to that point is
limited by mechanical errors
Errors are due to various inaccuracies and
imperfections, such as gear backlash, play between
leadscrew and worktable, and machine deflection
Errors are assumed to form a normal distribution
with mean = 0 and constant standard deviation
over axis range
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Accuracy in a Positioning
System
Maximum possible error that can occur between desired
target point and actual position taken by system
For one axis:
Accuracy = 0.5 CR + 3
where CR = control resolution; and = standard
deviation of the error distribution
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Repeatability
Capability of a positioning system to return to a given
control point that has been previously programmed
Repeatability of any given axis of a positioning
system can be defined as the range of mechanical
errors associated with the axis
Repeatability = 3
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
NC Part Programming
Techniques
1.
2.
3.
4.
Manual part programming
Computer-assisted part programming
CAD/CAM-assisted part programming
Manual data input
Common features:
Points, lines, and surfaces of workpart must be
defined relative to NC axis system
Movement of cutting tool must be defined
relative to these part features
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Applications of Numerical
Control
Operating principle of NC applies to many processes
Many industrial operations require the position of
a workhead to be controlled relative to the part or
product being processed
Two categories of NC applications:
1. Machine tool applications
2. Non-machine tool applications
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Machine Tool Applications
NC widely used for machining operations such as
turning, drilling, and milling
NC has motivated development of machining centers,
which change their own cutting tools to perform a
variety of machining operations
Other NC machine tools:
Grinding machines
Sheet metal pressworking machines
Thermal cutting processes
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Non-Machine Tool Applications
Tape laying machines and filament winding machines
for composites
Welding machines, both arc welding and resistance
welding
Component insertion machines in electronics
assembly
Drafting machines (x-y plotters)
Coordinate measuring machines for inspection
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Benefits of NC
Reduced non-productive time
Results in shorter cycle times
Lower manufacturing lead times
Simpler fixtures
Greater manufacturing flexibility
Improved accuracy
Reduced human error
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Industrial Robotics
An industrial robot is a general purpose programmable
machine that possesses certain anthropomorphic
features
The most apparent anthropomorphic feature is the
robot’s mechanical arm, or manipulator
Robots can perform a variety of tasks such as loading
and unloading machine tools, spot welding
automobile bodies, and spray painting
Robots are typically used as substitutes for human
workers in these tasks
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Robot Anatomy
An industrial robot consists of
Mechanical manipulator
A set of joints and links to position and orient the
end of the manipulator relative to its base
Controller
Operates the joints in a coordinated fashion to
execute a programmed work cycle
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Manipulator of
an industrial
robot (photo
courtesy of
Adept)
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Manipulator Joints and Links
A robot joint is similar to a human body joint
It provides relative movement between two parts
of the body
Typical industrial robots have five or six joints
Manipulator joints - classified as linear or rotating
Each joint moves its output link relative to its input
link
Coordinated movement of joints enables robot to
move, position, and orient objects
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Manipulator Design
Robot manipulators can usually be divided into two
sections:
Arm-and-body assembly - function is to position an
object or tool
Three joints are typical for arm-and-body
Wrist assembly - function is to properly orient the
object or tool
Two or three joints are associated with wrist
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Five Basic Arm-and-Body
Configurations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Polar
Cylindrical
Cartesian coordinate
Jointed-arm
SCARA (Selectively Compliant Assembly Robot
Arm)
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Basic Arm-and-Body
Configurations
(a) Polar, (b) cylindrical, and (c) Cartesian coordinate
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Basic Arm-and-Body
Configurations
(d) Jointed-arm and (e) SCARA (Selectively Compliant
Assembly Robot Arm)
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Manipulator Wrist
The wrist is assembled to the last link of the
arm-and-body
The SCARA is sometimes an exception because it is
almost always used for simple handling and
assembly tasks involving vertical motions
A wrist is not usually present at the end of its
manipulator
Substituting for the wrist on the SCARA is
usually a gripper to grasp components for
movement and/or assembly
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
End Effectors
Special tooling that connects to the robot's wrist to
perform the specific task
1. Tools - used for a processing operation
Applications: spot welding guns, spray painting
nozzles, rotating spindles, heating torches,
assembly tools
2. Grippers - designed to grasp and move objects
(usually parts)
Applications: part placement, machine loading
and unloading, and palletizing
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Gripper End Effector
A robot gripper: (a) open and (b) closed to grasp a
workpart
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Robot Programming
Robots execute a stored program of instructions that
define the sequence of motions and positions in the
work cycle
Much like a part program in NC
In addition to motion instructions, the program may
include commands for other functions:
Interacting with external equipment
Responding to sensors
Processing data
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Two Basic Robot Programming
Methods
1. Leadthrough programming
Teaching-by-showing - manipulator is moved
through sequence of positions in the work cycle
and the controller records each position in
memory for subsequent playback
2. Computer programming languages
Robot program is prepared at least partially offline for subsequent downloading to robot
controller
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Where Should Robots be Used?
Work environment is hazardous for humans
Work cycle is repetitive
The work is performed at a stationary location
Part or tool handling is difficult for humans
Multi-shift operation
Long production runs and infrequent changeovers
Part positioning and orientation are established at the
beginning of work cycle, since most robots cannot
see
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Applications of Industrial Robots
Three basic categories:
1. Material handling
Moving materials or parts (e.g., machine
loading and unloading)
2. Processing operations
Manipulating a tool (e.g., spot welding, spray
painting)
3. Assembly and inspection
May involve moving parts or tools
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e