Work with Groups

Step Seven: Clinical Group Work Chapter 16

Group Method Two Goals

Like the history of social work itself, the history of group work entails commitment to two goals: (1)

Individual change

(clinical group work) (chapter 16) (2)

Social change

(non-clinical group work) (chapter 17)

Types of Groups

• •

Aggregation

: a gathering of people in time and place who have no intent of forming or maintaining an affiliation. (waiting at a bus stop; movie audience)

Natural Groups:

Members come together spontaneously on the basis of naturally occurring events, interpersonal attraction or the mutually perceived needs of the members. (the family is a primary natural group followed by friendship groups and neighborhood groups)

Types of Groups Continued

•

Formed Groups

: Members (1) come together through some outside influence or intervention, (2) usually have some sponsorship (boy/girl scouts, agency auspice), (3) are convened for a particular purpose and (4) usually have a professionally trained leader.

• Practitioners work with both natural and formed groups.

Group Method Value-Added Skills

• Practitioners, whether in clinical social work or in policy, advocacy, management or community practice must acquire

additional skills

in group method. • In addition, competent group work requires learning

two distinct group skill sets

; one for clinical group work (this chapter) and another for policy, advocacy, management and community practice (Chapter 18).

Paradox of Group Constructive-Destructive Forces

• • There is

universal ambivalence

toward groups whether they are used in clinical or non-clinical settings.

• It is impossible to have any kind of group without the occurrence of

contradictory process

such as individuality/belonging; attachment/alienation; progression/regression.

Constructive and destructive

any form of group life.

forces co-exist in

Inevitable Group Tensions

The following inevitable group tensions occur whether in clinical or non-clinical groups: (1) Competition, (2) Rivalry, (3) Envy (4) Dominance, (5) Submission, (6) Criticism (7) Group pressure, (8) Scapegoating (9) Hostility, and (10) Rejection

Types of Clinical Groups Historical Perspective

• • •

Settlement House Movement

: group program activities and skill training. Members socialize and improve their lives.

Recreation Movement:

pursuit of leisure activities to encourage constructive use of time and to create a sense of community.

Progressive Education:

small groups are used to solve shared problems and to foster mutual aid

Types of Clinical Groups Historical Perspective

• •

Therapy-Mental Health and Child Guidance Movement:

group healing for those in emotional pain. Foulkes is credited with fathering the group analytic method

Residential living and treatment facilities:

recognition of the dynamics of group living; effort to create a therapeutic social milieu; manage negative group dynamics.

Professionalization Historical Perspective

• • •

Grace Coyle (1948

) established group work as a method within social work • National Association for the Study of Group Work (

NASGW, 1936

) transformed into American Association of Group Workers (AAGW): began group journal.

NASW (1955)

Merger of AAGW with National Association of Social Workers

AASWG (1979)

Association for the Advancement of Social Work Practice with Groups; effort to revitalize group work

Merger: Gains and Losses Professionalization

• Group work gained

professional status

following its merger with NASW, however, its

significance as a method

was

overrun

by the sheer number of caseworkers in the profession.

• Group Works’

tilt

toward professionalization led to a tilt toward

clinical group

work • Its

standing as clinical

a significant

model of non-

practice in policy, advocacy, management and community practice was

lost.

• Group method was

further eroded

toward

generalist practice

.

with the move

Definition

• Group method is one clinical method

choice

among several clinical method options (individual and family methods).

• Clinical group work is

defined

as goal directed activity with small groups aimed at meeting the social and emotional needs of individual members and the group as a whole.

Clinical Group Method Goals

To promote, enhance, or restore individual: (1) mental health (2) social functioning Not all clinical group work is group psycho therapy but all clinical group work serves therapeutic goals

Groups in Clinical Practice Typology: Therapeutic Groups

• • • • •

Recreational

groups: Activities, fun, sport

Skill acquisition

: budgeting, cooking, car repair, sewing, life skills

Play groups

: developmental skills; interpersonal skills, taking turns, listening, sharing

Self enhancement

: dance, drama, poetry, music, art, book discussion

Social Milieu:

Residential living

Groups in Clinical Practice Typology:Psychotherapy Groups

Analytic Groups

• Psychodrama • Sociodrama • Play therapy • Psycho-education • Mutual Aid • Ego Supportive

Groups in Clinical Practice Typology:Psychotherapy Groups

Social Microcosm

• Groups focused on social identity • Groups focused on socialization to societal norms; conformity to law and order

Optimism The Group’s Potential

• Foulkes, Yalom, and Schulman are optimistic about the groups’ potential to bring about healing through its curative properties.

• These scholar-practitioners admonish group therapists to “trust the group” • Therapists are taught to rely on the creative properties of groups.

Caution:The Anti-Group: Destructive Properties of Groups

• In contrast to Foulkes’ optimism, Nitsun cautions practitioners about the anti-group. • Nitsun identifies 10 aspects of group life that cause

anti-group sentiments

among group members: (1) the group is a collection of strangers (2) the group is unstructured (3) members “create” the group; worker is not always in control of the group’s process

Anti-Group Sentiments Continued

(4) it is a public arena – (5) it is a plural entity (6) it is a complex experience (7) it creates interpersonal tension (8) it is unpredictable (9) it fluctuates in its progress (10) it is an incomplete experience

Anti-Group Dynamics in the Analytic Group

• • According to Nitsun (1996) the

paradox

of group life

deepens

when groups are used

as a method of therapy.

• The therapy group is exaggerated by the paradox of group life generally and specifically by the

conditions members bring to

the group.

Groups can become pathological

, mobilizing aggressive and destructive forces (Nitsun 1996; Bion, 1961).

Anti-Group Dynamics in the Analytic Group

• According to

Bion,

neurotic and psychotic conditions are in essence group disruptive.

• According to

Knopka

, groups possess destructive power even when they are composed of healthy, rational, well-meaning individuals • Otherwise good people

harm

other good people when the destructive forces of group life are not properly managed.

Empirical Studies 10 Properties Common to All Groups

Empirical studies about how groups work have identified 10 properties common to all groups. All group workers must take into account the following properties of group: (1) size (2) purpose, (3) composition, (4) open or closed membership, (5) degree of desired cohesion, (6) group stages, (7) group structure, (8) interaction and communication patterns, (9) curative factors and (10) anti-group sentiments and forces.

Group Property Size

• Size refers to the optimum number of members needed to form a group to accomplish purpose-driven goals.

• The optimal size for achieving clinical goals is 5-10 members. • Size must allow for absences and attrition.

Group Property Composition

• • Group

composition affects

group

dynamics

ultimately the effectiveness and efficacy of outcome.

and • The group worker must weigh the value of

homogeneity and heterogeneity

on numerous composition variables e.g. gender, age, diagnoses, severity of condition, tension needed for change, compatibility or incompatibility of members,. etc.

Example

: Yalom’s in-patient groups are heterogeneous on diagnoses; homogeneous on level of functioning, capacity for insight, attention span (1 hr.) not disruptive, able to talk.

Group Property Stranger Composition

•

Stranger composition

therapy group.

is the sine qua non of the • Nitsun notes that the psychological challenges of belonging to a group may be greater than commonly recognized.

• Group life often re-evokes and recreates feared interpersonal situations. • Groups can lack containment and protection; members fear breach of confidentiality and exposure to a wider community.

Group Property Socio-Demographic Composition

• Workers must take into account socio demographic variables such as race, gender, class, ethnicity, religious affiliation, sexual orientation.

• How syntonic or dystonic members should be on these socio-demographic variables depends on the purpose of group.

• If the difference is too great, subgroups may form, creating greater intolerance and blocking change. • If there is not enough difference the tension needed for change will be absent.

Group Property Open or Closed Membership

•

Open

: anyone welcome, at any time • • •

Closed

: no new members once formed.

• Whether membership should be open or closed depends on the

purpose

of the group and the

degree of cohesion

sought.

Analytic groups

: closed membership- trust is needed for self-disclosure.

Recreation or skill training groups

: open

Group Property Cohesion

• The degree of cohesion

depends on the goal

of the group. The goal may be: • To

break down cohesion

when groups act cohesively to achieve destructive ends e.g. gangs • To

foster cohesion

where no camaraderie exists and when worker wants group to foster group identity and sense of belonging

Group Property Typology of Group Stages

• • • • Every group and every session passes through identifiable stages. See exhibit 16.3

• Failure to recognize and work with group stages can lead to therapeutic errors and missteps.

Tuckman

’s stages are: forming, norming, storming, performing and ending.

Bion’

s stages are: dependency, independence (fight/flight), interdependence (pairing), work, ending

Generic

stages are : beginnings, middles, & ends.

Group Property Structure: Subgroups

• • • • Like other

systems,

• Groups have the following

structural forms

: the individual member, sub groups, and the group as a whole.

Subgroups

groups have a

structure

.

(cliques) may come in pairs, triads for foursomes; leaders and followers.

In-group/outgroup

: Sub groups have

boundaries

that include and exclude other group members.

Ingroup/outgroup dynamics

are

destructive

to individual members and to the group as a whole.

Group Property Structure: Roles

• • A

role structures interaction

• The

role a member

plays may interfere with individual change and may block the work of the group as a whole. See exhibit 16.4

Schulman

identifies the following roles that occur in groups: (1) gatekeeper, (2) deviant, (3) scapegoat, (4) internal leader, (5) quiet member, (6) defensive member-denial.(7) monopolizer. • Cliques and roles are structural formations.

Group Property: Norms –Patterns of Interaction

• • • Communication and interaction patterns establish

group norms

.

• Norms may be

explicit or implicit. Explicit norms:

day and time of meeting; length of meeting (1.5 hr.); duration of group (brief-12 weeks); use of talk or activity.

Implicit norms

: Is it safe to trust? To take a risk? To be angry? To miss a session? To cry? • Norms:

sabotage

or

support

the work of the group

Group Property Communication Patterns

• Often groups begin by using a

maypole

or

round robin

pattern of communication where each member, in turn, directs some communication to the leader.

• Eventually the communication patterns become dynamic and implicit. • A

sociogram

captures implicit group communication & interaction patterns; who initiates an exchange, how frequently and to whom it is directed.

Group Property Communication

• What is communicated may be expressed

verbally

or

nonverbally.

• Members communicate through

words

,

feelings

(tears, laughter,) and

behavior

(who sits where, who comes in first, leaves last).

• • Members communicate

“near”

problems-and introduce problems as the session ends;

doorknob.

Non-problems

: Themes are discussed rather than the specific problem of a specific individual.

Group Property Yalom: Curative Factors

Groups possess

curative factors

: (1) hope, (2) universality, (3) imparting information, (4) altruism, (5) corrective recapitulation of the primary family group, (6) imitative learning, (7) interpersonal learning, (8) group cohesion, (9) catharsis, and (10 ) existential factors.

Group Property Shulman: Mutual Aid

Mutual Aid

consists of: (1) sharing data, (2) the dialectic process, (3) discussing taboo areas, (4) all-in-the-same-boat, (5) mutual support, (6) mutual demand, (7) developing a universal perspective, (8) individual problem solving, (9) rehearsal, and (10) strength-in numbers

Group Property Nitsun: The Anti-Group

• Analytic therapy groups contain destructive forces which the group therapist must manage. • The anti-group challenges the optimistic perception of the therapy group as a healing medium.

• When therapy groups fail to develop as therapeutic entities, such groups may act pathologically.

• The flip side of Yalom’s core curative factor, “interpersonal learning” is “interpersonal threat”.

Group Property Anti-Group Phenomenon

• Rise of anger and hostility in the group • A high drop out rate • Excessive member absences • A state of tense, negative impasse • Abrupt ending of the group • Nitsun remains skeptical about the ability of the group, or its leader, to control the group’s own destructive process once unleashed.

Group Property Reparation and Transformation

• • • •

Foulkes

believes that reparation & transformation lie in confrontation of anxiety about destructiveness.

Confrontation

awakens the urge to repair.

Containment

, if not resolution, of group destructive forces relieves some anxiety.

Brief and short term models

of group therapy appear to minimize the likelihood that destructive forces will be unleashed.

Theories that Inform Group Work Practice.

The major theories that inform analytic group therapy are borrowed from: (1) Psychology, psychodynamic theory personality; Ego identity; Ego strength (2) Sociology, symbolic-interaction theory and socialization theory – definition of self; social identity.

Analytic Groups Psychodynamic Theory

• The

purpose

of analytic groups is to change individual maladaptive patterns of communication and interpersonal interactions thought to originate in childhood. “There and then” plays out in the the “here and now” of current relationships.

• An individual’s maladaptive patterns are

re enacted and corrected

through the medium of the group. Recapitulations lead to diagnostic hypotheses and corrective interventions.

Analytic Groups Psychodynamic Theory

• Individuals in analytic group therapy benefit from

insight

(interpretation) and from

experiencing

self-others

correctively

in the interactive group moment • Group members and the therapist substitute for the individual’s family and those in the client’s current interactive environment.

Analytic Groups Psychodrama: Moreno

• Referred to as the

theater of spontaneity

; an off shoot of psychodynamic theory.

• Enactment of problem scenes in the client’s life are followed by corrective scenes. • The client plays both the protagonist and antagonist to view the problem from different perspectives. Other group members may stand in for significant others in the client’s life • Other members recognize self in other and gain insight and healing vicariously.

Analytic Groups Gestalt Therapy: Perls

• Perls rejects analytic orthodoxy. • The hot seat is used to focus on one member • The worker follows the unfolding of the member’s experience but does not direct it as in sociodrama.

• The emphasis in Gestalt therapy is on the client’s moment to moment awareness and feeling state. • Observers are thought to benefit vicariously.

Analytic Groups Sociological Theories

• The group is a

social microcosm

of an individual’s environment of socialization. • Group dynamics reflect

experiential learning

about

social self

related to culture, ethnicity, race, religion, sexual orientation, gender, socio economic class and handicapping condition.

• Issues of

poor self-esteem, identity, social status

, and

stigma

arise through group dynamics and are the focus of attention.

Analytical Groups Sociological Theories

• When

sociological theories

are used, it is hypothesized that how an individual feels, thinks, and behaves is the result of

socialization to status

(structure-function theory) and

reference group membership

(symbolic interaction theory). • When

psychological theories

are used, causality is attributed to childhood and current interpersonal maladaptive patterns of interpersonal relationship.

Managing Destructive Group Behavior

• • •

Managing the Anti-Group:

Caution is warranted when the destructive forces of group life are unleashed. It is difficult to transform such forces once they have developed.

Transference- Counter-Transference:

Groups trigger multiple transferences and counter-transferences. This is potentially helpful and harmful depending on the worker’s skill

Analytic group therapist:

Need additional training beyond that offered in most schools of social work.

Group Method Rules of Thumb

• Group

method

is

not appropriate for all

clients.

• The clinician must be able to

predict and balance

the needs, strengths, and vulnerabilities of members, when composing a group, in a manner that will benefit each member and the group as a whole.

• A worker should not knowingly compose a group that will lead to

dynamics

that she/he is

unable

to

manage.

Group Method Contra-Indications

• No one should be forced to participate in a group against their will; this includes non-clinical school and work groups.

• Analytic group method is contra-indicated for those individuals who are non-verbal, unable to take into account the viewpoint of another, or who may be secondarily traumatized by their participation .

• Group is not an appropriate method for those who have a cultural norm against self-disclosure.

Group Method Contra-Indications

• Group is not an appropriate method for those who are highly vulnerable to the aggressiveness of others or those, who are themselves, highly aggressive.

Group Method Missteps

 It is a misstep to allow a member to leave the group in a

vulnerable state

because of the group’s process.

• The worker should

not

leave

unchecked

, the attack of one member or the group on another, negative ingroup/outgroup dynamics, individual acting out, or a member’s negative reaction to group process.

• The practitioner is

obligated to intervene

negative group dynamics. in

Group Method Sample Process Recording

• See exhibit 16.6 –Process Recording of a boys’ recreational group- constructive use of time • See exhibit 16.7 on the decision schema for choosing group method as a clinical intervention.

• See chapter 17 for the use of group method in policy, advocacy, management and community practice.