Transcript Chapter 6
Chapter 6
Toddlerhood: Exploring the World and
Experimenting with Language
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2e
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Focus Questions
This chapter is designed to address the
following questions:
What major language development
milestones occur in toddlerhood?
What are toddlers’ achievements in
language form, content, and use?
What factors influence toddlers’
individual achievements in language?
How do researchers and clinicians
measure language development in
toddlerhood?
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Practice, 2e
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Introduction
Toddlerhood: period between __ and
__ yrs of age
Create matches between ______ and
_______ in the world and the language
that describes them
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First Words
Pre-verbal to verbal communication
First word ~12 mos of age, on average
Words:
______________________
______________________
______________________
Each new word creates an entry in lexicon
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First Words, cont
Lexical entries: series of symbols that
comprise the word, sound of the word,
meaning of the word, and word’s part of
speech
3 criteria for true word:
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
__________________
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First Words, cont
Phonetically-consistent form, or PCF:
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
Ex. “water” as “ahhhh”
Consistent sound structure, used in several
contexts, rather than to name a single referent
Learn the value of adopting a stable pronunciation
to communicate in a particular situation
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Gestures
Precedes ______________
Transition from __________ to ________
__________:
Referential gestures: _____________________
______________________________________
Ex. Holding a fist to the ear to indicate “telephone”
Share some properties of first true words
Use signals an impending transition from pre-linguistic to
linguistic communication
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Gestures, cont
Transition from 1-word stage to 2-word
stage:
_____________________
_____________________
Begin to use
_______________________, cease to
combine two referential gestures
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Achievements in Language Form,
Content, and Use
3 rule-governed domains:
Form
Content
Use
Toddlerhood: ______________________;
____________; ____________________
__________________________; _______
______________________ WOW!
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Norms for Phoneme Attainment
Sander’s (1972) customary ages of
production and ages of mastery and
speech sounds
Customary age of production: _________
__________________________________
__________________________________
Age of mastery: _____________________
__________________________________
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Phonological Processes
Place of articulation changes: ____________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Fronting: replace sounds produced farther back in
the mouth with sounds produced farther forward
in the mouth
Manner of articulation changes: _________
___________________________________
___________________________________
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Phonological Perception
First position: ________________________
____________________________________
Only after toddlers enter the ____________ does
a restructuring of lexical representations begin
More efficient storage of lexical items and allows toddlers
to recognize words at the segmental rather than global
level
Second position: ____________________
__________________________________
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Grammatical Morphemes
Morpheme: ________________________
__________________________________
__________________
Grammatical morphemes: _____________
___________________________________
Appear in speech between _______ mos of age,
or after first ___words acquired
Roger Brown (1973): order and ages by which
children master 14 grammatical morphemes
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Combining Words to Make
Longer Utterances
Two-word stage: _________________
_______________________________
Marks the true beginning of syntax
(rules that govern the order of words in
a child’s language)
Functions:____________, ________,
_________, ___________
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Combining Words to Make
Longer Utterances Cont.
Brown’s Stages of Language Development:
__________________________________
__________________________________
Mean length of utterance (MLU): __________
_____________________________________
MLU= total number of morphemes/total number of utterances
As language develops, MLU increases systematically
General standard: calculate MLU using a language
sample of 50 utterances or more
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Sentence Forms
Telegraphic quality: omit key
grammatical markers
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________:
Yes/no questions
Wh-questions
Negatives
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Achievements in Content
Novice to expert __________________
Large gains in ___________________
___________________
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The Receptive and Expressive
Lexicon
Receptive lexicon: _________________
________________________________
Expressive lexicon: ________________
___________________________
Vocabulary spurt, word spurt, naming
explosion: _________________________
__________________________________
_____________________
Children learn an average of ___new words per
day!
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Overextension
Overextension: children use words in an
overly general manner
3 major kinds of overextensions made by
toddlers:
Categorical: _______________________________
________________________
Analogical: ________________________________
_________________________________________
Relational: _________________________________
__________________________________________
Overgeneralize about ____ of new words
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Underextension
Underextension: _________________
_______________________________
More common than overextensions
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Overlap
Overextend in some circumstances and
underextend in other circumstances
3 possible explanations for why children make
such errors (Gershkoff-Stowe, 2001):
________________________
Pragmatic error: ________________________
______________________________________
_____________________________
Retrieval error: _________________________
______________________________________
_____________________
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Social-Pragmatic Framework for
Acquiring New Words
Follow another’s gaze and pointing
gestures, engage in joint attention, and
imitate actions by _____mos of age
(Baldwin, 1995)
By ______ of age infants use social cues,
including line-of-regard, gestures, voice
direction, and body posture to make
inferences about intentions underlying
others’ actions (Baldwin & Baird, 1999)
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How Do Toddlers Acquire Words
So Quickly?: Fast Mapping
Fast mapping: _________________
_____________________________
Lexical representation from brief exposure
to the novel word and its referent
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Conversational Skills
Initiate a _____________, sustain that topic
for ___________, and then appropriately
__________________________
Difficulty keeping their _______________ in
mind
Not yet proficient at realizing when they are
_____________________________; unlikely
to seek clarification
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Theory to Practice
1991 National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development (NICHD) began a longitudinal Study of
Early Child Care (SECC)
Data concerning cognitive, social, emotional, and
language development from birth on
Indicators associated with positive caregiving
behaviors:
_________________
_________________
__________________________
______________________________________ (NICHD ECCRN,
1996)
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Theory to Practice, cont
Overall quality of child care, and
______________ in particular, was
consistently but modestly related to
toddlers’ cognitive and language
outcomes at ___months, ___ months,
and ____ months (NICHD, ECCRN, 2000)
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Individual Differences in
Language Development
Language development is not linear
(e.g., Fenson et al., 2000; Scarborough, 2002)
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
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Variation in Receptive and
Expressive Language
Development
___________ generally precedes
___________ in language learning
Disparity between size of one’s
receptive and expressive lexicon
continue throughout ____________,
____________, and into _________
Language Development from Theory to
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Effects of Gender
Girls produce ___________________ than
boys and also produce more ___________
combinations than boys
Boys lag behind girls in their _________
______________
Differences in boys’ and girls’ maturation
rates, particularly with respect to _________
___________, may contribute to gender
differences in language acquisition
______ interact differently with boys and girls
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Effects of Birth Order
Children’s language development might
differ according to the order in which
they are born
_________ children are more likely to have
larger vocabularies in their second year,
and to reach the 50-word mark sooner
than their later-born counterparts
Possible that first born and only children
receive a larger amount of _________
attention than children who are not first born
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Effects of Socioeconomic Status
Some measure of __________, _________
___________, or ______________
Associated with a variety of health, cognitive, and
socioemotional outcomes in children, with effects
beginning prior to birth and continuing into
adulthood (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002)
____ is associated with toddlers’ receptive
and expressive language development
Language Development from Theory to
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Multicultural Focus
Exposing children to multiple languages
Laura Ann Pettito and colleagues (2001):
“being exposed to two languages from birth,
by itself, ________________________ to the
normal process of human language
acquisition” (p. 494)
Ability to detect __________________
_______________ regularities, in infancy,
contributes to our capacity to acquire multiple
languages simultaneously
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How Researchers Measure
Language Development
Methods for assessing children’s
language development (McDaniel, McKee, &
Smith, 1996)
________________
________________
________________
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Production Tasks
Produce, or say, the language targets
under investigation
Unstructured or semi-structured:
___________________________
Structured and systematic: ________
______________________________
______________________________
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Naturalistic Observation
Researchers must consider: _________
__________________, ____________
__________________________, and
the variety of ___________________
___________________
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Elicited Imitation
Natural ability to imitate others’ movements
and speech sounds in order to gauge their
underlying linguistic competence
___________________________ and requests
that the child ___________________________
______________________________________
In order for a child to successfully imitate a target,
that target must be a part of the child’s
_________________
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Elicited Production
Produce __________________________
Jean Berko Gleason’s (1958) Wug Test
Investigate children’s acquisition of English morphemes,
including the plural marker
Allomorphs (variants of a morpheme with the same
meaning, but different sounds) of the morpheme –s
/z/, /s/, and /Iz/
Presented children with a pseudo word and asked them
to say what two of the same word would be called
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Comprehension Tasks
Match pictures to target words and
phrases or act out phrases that they
hear an experimenter say
____________________
____________________
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Picture Selection Task
Present a _______________ and ask
the child to choose the picture that
corresponds to that target
Investigate children’s understanding of
lexical items and syntactic constructions
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Act Out Task
Present a child with a __________ and
instruct the child to “act out” the
sentences he or she hears in order to
investigate the child’s _____________
_______________________________
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How Clinicians Measure Language
Development
Individuals with Disabilities Act of 2004
(IDEA;
2004):
Evaluation: _____________________________
__________; includes determination of the child’s
status across developmental areas
Structured, standardized, and limited in duration
Assessment: ____________________________
_______________________________________
Less formal; variety of methods
Encourage parent and caregiver participation
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Evaluation and Assessment Tools
Limitations:
Limited role for family members in the assessment
process
Limited allowance for individual variation across
children due to standardization
Limited predictability of later language and
communication abilities
Ecological validity: extent to which the data
resulting from these tools can be
________________________, including the
child’s home and daycare surroundings
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Informal Language Screen
_____________ that allow clinicians
and parents to check whether or not
children exhibit each of the behaviors in
question
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