Transcript Chapter 6

Chapter 6
Toddlerhood: Exploring the World and
Experimenting with Language
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2e
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Focus Questions
This chapter is designed to address the
following questions:

What major language development
milestones occur in toddlerhood?

What are toddlers’ achievements in
language form, content, and use?

What factors influence toddlers’
individual achievements in language?

How do researchers and clinicians
measure language development in
toddlerhood?
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-2
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Introduction


Toddlerhood: period between __ and
__ yrs of age
Create matches between ______ and
_______ in the world and the language
that describes them
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-3
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
First Words




Pre-verbal to verbal communication
First word ~12 mos of age, on average
Words:
 ______________________
 ______________________
 ______________________
Each new word creates an entry in lexicon
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-4
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
First Words, cont


Lexical entries: series of symbols that
comprise the word, sound of the word,
meaning of the word, and word’s part of
speech
3 criteria for true word:



____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
__________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-5
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
First Words, cont

Phonetically-consistent form, or PCF:
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________



Ex. “water” as “ahhhh”
Consistent sound structure, used in several
contexts, rather than to name a single referent
Learn the value of adopting a stable pronunciation
to communicate in a particular situation
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-6
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Gestures


Precedes ______________
Transition from __________ to ________
__________:

Referential gestures: _____________________
______________________________________



Ex. Holding a fist to the ear to indicate “telephone”
Share some properties of first true words
Use signals an impending transition from pre-linguistic to
linguistic communication
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-7
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Gestures, cont

Transition from 1-word stage to 2-word
stage:



_____________________
_____________________
Begin to use
_______________________, cease to
combine two referential gestures
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-8
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Achievements in Language Form,
Content, and Use

3 rule-governed domains:




Form
Content
Use
Toddlerhood: ______________________;
____________; ____________________
__________________________; _______
______________________ WOW!
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-9
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Norms for Phoneme Attainment

Sander’s (1972) customary ages of
production and ages of mastery and
speech sounds


Customary age of production: _________
__________________________________
__________________________________
Age of mastery: _____________________
__________________________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-10
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Phonological Processes

Place of articulation changes: ____________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________


Fronting: replace sounds produced farther back in
the mouth with sounds produced farther forward
in the mouth
Manner of articulation changes: _________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-11
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Phonological Perception

First position: ________________________
____________________________________

Only after toddlers enter the ____________ does
a restructuring of lexical representations begin


More efficient storage of lexical items and allows toddlers
to recognize words at the segmental rather than global
level
Second position: ____________________
__________________________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-12
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Grammatical Morphemes


Morpheme: ________________________
__________________________________
__________________
Grammatical morphemes: _____________
___________________________________


Appear in speech between _______ mos of age,
or after first ___words acquired
Roger Brown (1973): order and ages by which
children master 14 grammatical morphemes
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-13
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Combining Words to Make
Longer Utterances

Two-word stage: _________________
_______________________________
Marks the true beginning of syntax
(rules that govern the order of words in
a child’s language)

Functions:____________, ________,
_________, ___________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-14
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Combining Words to Make
Longer Utterances Cont.

Brown’s Stages of Language Development:
__________________________________
__________________________________

Mean length of utterance (MLU): __________
_____________________________________
MLU= total number of morphemes/total number of utterances


As language develops, MLU increases systematically
General standard: calculate MLU using a language
sample of 50 utterances or more
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-15
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Sentence Forms

Telegraphic quality: omit key
grammatical markers


_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________:



Yes/no questions
Wh-questions
Negatives
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-16
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Achievements in Content


Novice to expert __________________
Large gains in ___________________
___________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-17
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
The Receptive and Expressive
Lexicon



Receptive lexicon: _________________
________________________________
Expressive lexicon: ________________
___________________________
Vocabulary spurt, word spurt, naming
explosion: _________________________
__________________________________
_____________________

Children learn an average of ___new words per
day!
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-18
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Overextension


Overextension: children use words in an
overly general manner
3 major kinds of overextensions made by
toddlers:




Categorical: _______________________________
________________________
Analogical: ________________________________
_________________________________________
Relational: _________________________________
__________________________________________
Overgeneralize about ____ of new words
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-19
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Underextension

Underextension: _________________
_______________________________

More common than overextensions
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-20
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Overlap


Overextend in some circumstances and
underextend in other circumstances
3 possible explanations for why children make
such errors (Gershkoff-Stowe, 2001):



________________________
Pragmatic error: ________________________
______________________________________
_____________________________
Retrieval error: _________________________
______________________________________
_____________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-21
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Social-Pragmatic Framework for
Acquiring New Words

Follow another’s gaze and pointing
gestures, engage in joint attention, and
imitate actions by _____mos of age
(Baldwin, 1995)

By ______ of age infants use social cues,
including line-of-regard, gestures, voice
direction, and body posture to make
inferences about intentions underlying
others’ actions (Baldwin & Baird, 1999)
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-22
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
How Do Toddlers Acquire Words
So Quickly?: Fast Mapping

Fast mapping: _________________
_____________________________

Lexical representation from brief exposure
to the novel word and its referent
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-23
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Conversational Skills



Initiate a _____________, sustain that topic
for ___________, and then appropriately
__________________________
Difficulty keeping their _______________ in
mind
Not yet proficient at realizing when they are
_____________________________; unlikely
to seek clarification
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-24
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Theory to Practice



1991 National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development (NICHD) began a longitudinal Study of
Early Child Care (SECC)
Data concerning cognitive, social, emotional, and
language development from birth on
Indicators associated with positive caregiving
behaviors:




_________________
_________________
__________________________
______________________________________ (NICHD ECCRN,
1996)
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-25
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Theory to Practice, cont

Overall quality of child care, and
______________ in particular, was
consistently but modestly related to
toddlers’ cognitive and language
outcomes at ___months, ___ months,
and ____ months (NICHD, ECCRN, 2000)
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-26
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Individual Differences in
Language Development

Language development is not linear
(e.g., Fenson et al., 2000; Scarborough, 2002)

_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-27
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Variation in Receptive and
Expressive Language
Development


___________ generally precedes
___________ in language learning
Disparity between size of one’s
receptive and expressive lexicon
continue throughout ____________,
____________, and into _________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-28
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Effects of Gender




Girls produce ___________________ than
boys and also produce more ___________
combinations than boys
Boys lag behind girls in their _________
______________
Differences in boys’ and girls’ maturation
rates, particularly with respect to _________
___________, may contribute to gender
differences in language acquisition
______ interact differently with boys and girls
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-29
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Effects of Birth Order

Children’s language development might
differ according to the order in which
they are born

_________ children are more likely to have
larger vocabularies in their second year,
and to reach the 50-word mark sooner
than their later-born counterparts

Possible that first born and only children
receive a larger amount of _________
attention than children who are not first born
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-30
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Effects of Socioeconomic Status

Some measure of __________, _________
___________, or ______________


Associated with a variety of health, cognitive, and
socioemotional outcomes in children, with effects
beginning prior to birth and continuing into
adulthood (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002)
____ is associated with toddlers’ receptive
and expressive language development
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-31
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Multicultural Focus



Exposing children to multiple languages
Laura Ann Pettito and colleagues (2001):
“being exposed to two languages from birth,
by itself, ________________________ to the
normal process of human language
acquisition” (p. 494)
Ability to detect __________________
_______________ regularities, in infancy,
contributes to our capacity to acquire multiple
languages simultaneously
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-32
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
How Researchers Measure
Language Development

Methods for assessing children’s
language development (McDaniel, McKee, &
Smith, 1996)



________________
________________
________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-33
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Production Tasks

Produce, or say, the language targets
under investigation


Unstructured or semi-structured:
___________________________
Structured and systematic: ________
______________________________
______________________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-34
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Naturalistic Observation

Researchers must consider: _________
__________________, ____________
__________________________, and
the variety of ___________________
___________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-35
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Elicited Imitation

Natural ability to imitate others’ movements
and speech sounds in order to gauge their
underlying linguistic competence


___________________________ and requests
that the child ___________________________
______________________________________
In order for a child to successfully imitate a target,
that target must be a part of the child’s
_________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-36
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Elicited Production

Produce __________________________
Jean Berko Gleason’s (1958) Wug Test


Investigate children’s acquisition of English morphemes,
including the plural marker
Allomorphs (variants of a morpheme with the same
meaning, but different sounds) of the morpheme –s


/z/, /s/, and /Iz/
Presented children with a pseudo word and asked them
to say what two of the same word would be called
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-37
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Comprehension Tasks

Match pictures to target words and
phrases or act out phrases that they
hear an experimenter say


____________________
____________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-38
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Picture Selection Task

Present a _______________ and ask
the child to choose the picture that
corresponds to that target

Investigate children’s understanding of
lexical items and syntactic constructions
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-39
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Act Out Task

Present a child with a __________ and
instruct the child to “act out” the
sentences he or she hears in order to
investigate the child’s _____________
_______________________________
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-40
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
How Clinicians Measure Language
Development

Individuals with Disabilities Act of 2004
(IDEA;
2004):

Evaluation: _____________________________
__________; includes determination of the child’s
status across developmental areas


Structured, standardized, and limited in duration
Assessment: ____________________________
_______________________________________


Less formal; variety of methods
Encourage parent and caregiver participation
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-41
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Evaluation and Assessment Tools

Limitations:




Limited role for family members in the assessment
process
Limited allowance for individual variation across
children due to standardization
Limited predictability of later language and
communication abilities
Ecological validity: extent to which the data
resulting from these tools can be
________________________, including the
child’s home and daycare surroundings
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-42
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Informal Language Screen

_____________ that allow clinicians
and parents to check whether or not
children exhibit each of the behaviors in
question
Language Development from Theory to
Practice, 2e
Khara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
6-43
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.