Evolution of Computing Tools

計算工具的演化

Sai-Ping Li

李世炳

Institute of Physics, Academia Sinica March 2, 2013

在遠古年代，人類因為祭拜而需要計數。

圓形石林--將巨大石塊豎立 按圓形排列的紀念物，周圍 環以土堤。建於史前時代， 約從西元前3100年開始。坐 落在英格蘭倫敦西南約80 英里處 。 Stonehenge, which lies 13km north of Salisbury, England, is believed to have been an ancient form of calendar designed to capture the light from the summer solstice in a specific fashion.

Pebbles were used by the ancients for a variety of purposes. They are one of the earliest methods of counting using a physical aide.

最早期的計算方法，以數小石頭來幫助計算。

The abacus is one of the earliest devices to be used in calculation, and still in use, in various forms, around the world today.

算盤 --- 最古老的計算工具之一

Counting Board and Abacus

計算板與算盤 The history of the abacus probably traced back to ancient Mesopotamia. The people probably drew lines on the ground and used pebbles to represent numbers and do calculations. The counting board is a piece of wood, stone or metal with carved grooves or painted lines between which beads, pebbles or metal discs were moved. The abacus is a device, usually of wood (plastic, in recent times), having a frame that holds rods with freely-sliding beads mounted on them. 歷史上，計算板是一個便攜式的平面，通常由木頭或石頭組成，上 面放置鵝卵石或小珠子等物件來計算某件事情。計算板的想法來自 於你需要時，可以在地面或沙地上劃線或圖形。 The person operating the abacus performs calculations in their head and uses the abacus as a physical aid to keep track of the sums, etc.

Evolutionary Time-line:

This time-line shows the evolution from the earliest counting board to the present day abacus. The evolution of the abacus can be divided into three ages: Ancient Times, Middle Ages, and Modern Times.

算盤演化過程可分為三個時期： 遠古年代，中世紀年代，新世代。

Ancient Times

遠古年代

The Salamis Tablet, the Roman Calculi and Hand-abacus are from the period c. 300 B.C to c. 500 A.D.

The Salamis Tablet

The oldest surviving counting board is the Salamis tablet (originally thought to be a gaming board), used by the Babylonians circa 300 B.C., discovered in 1846 on the island of Salamis.

最古老的計算板，估計大約在公 元三百年前為巴比倫人所使用。 於公元1846年在Salamis島上被 發現。

Counting

Board--Pebbles were used for counting

計算版—以 鵝卵石作計數用。

Middle Ages

中世紀年代

The Apices, the coin-board and the Line-board are from the period c. 5 A.D. to c. 1400 A.D.

Modern Times

新世代

The Suan-pan, the Soroban and the Schoty are from the period c. 1200 A.D to the present.

Arabic Multiplication Tables 阿拉伯乘法表

John Napier, (1550-1617), in early 1600s took animal bones and carved the multiples of the Gelosia method of arithmetic on them; by adding on the diagonal, one could "multiply"

Napier’s Bones 納皮爾 骨頭

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napier's_bones

Schickard's Calculating clock(1623)- The machine incorporates a set of "Napier's bones" (on the cylinders) and a mechanism to add the partial products (with a carry mechanism).

Four-Figure Tables 對數表

In 1614 , John Napier discovered the logarithm which made it possible to perform multiplications and divisions by addition and subtraction. 1614年，蘇格蘭數學家納皮爾發 現了對數，使得數字的乘跟除可 以加減替代。

1614

Slide Rule

計算尺

1. 1614年，蘇格蘭數學家納皮爾發現了對數，使得數字的乘 跟除可以加減替代。 2. 1620 年 ， 牛津的埃德蒙·甘特（Edmund Gunter）發明了一 種使用單個對數刻度的計算工具，當和另外的測量工具配 合使用時，可以用來做乘除法。 3. 1925年，劍橋的William Oughtred發明了圓式計算尺。 John Napier William Oughtred (1575-1660)

Straight Slide Rule

直式計算尺

Circular Slide Rule

圓式計算尺

A slide rule consists of three interlocking calibrated strips. The central strip can be moved lengthways relative to the other two. A sliding cursor with an alignment line can record an intermediate result on any of the scales . 一把計算尺通常由三個互相鎖定的有刻度的長條和一個滑動 窗口(稱為 游標 )組成。在1970年代之前使用廣泛，之後被電 子計算器機所取代，成為過時技術。

Division— 除法

For example, the division of 22 by 2.75.

例 ： 22 ÷ 2.75

A Slide Rule is –

An ANALOG computer

計算尺是一台類比電腦

(1791 – 1871)

Pascal's Pascaline (1642)

Stepped Drums (1672 Leibniz)

(First mechanical calculator, 1822)

(1886)

Mechanical Calculators

機械式計算機

Computer –

One who computes!

做計算的人

Computer Age

電腦紀元 The first computers were people! “Computer” was originally a job title: it was used to describe those human beings (predominantly women) whose job it was to perform the repetitive calculations required to compute such things as navigational tables, tide charts, and planetary positions for astronomical almanacs. “Computer” 原來是一個工作名稱，是指專門負責計 算的人。

ENIAC: the "Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator" Completed in 1946, the first vacuum tube-based computer, has 18,000 vacuum tubes and takes up 1,800 square feet of space. Considered to be the first “true computer” 第一台 “ 真正 ” 電腦，內含18,000個真空管， 電腦大小有18,000平方英尺。

Computer Punch Cards

電腦打孔卡

IBM電腦打孔機，，操作方式與一般打字機一樣。

An IBM Key Punch machine which operates like a typewriter except it produces punched cards rather than a printed sheet of paper

Paper Tape 紙帶

A typical paper tape reader 紙帶閱讀機

The IBM 7094, a typical mainframe computer 大型電腦

The original IBM Personal Computer (PC)

第一代

IBM

個人電腦

Development of Computers

電腦發展簡史

• • • • • • • • • • • •

1936--

Turing Machine (Alan Turing)

1943--

Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)

1946--

ENIAC

1947--

Transistor (Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain) 晶體管

1957--

Transistorized Experimental Computer (TX-O)

1958--

Integrated circuit (Jack St. Claire Kilby) 積體電路

1971--

Intel's first microprocessor, the

4004

, was developed

1971--

The first microcomputers (PCs) were developed

1974--

Apple I

1981--

IBM PC 個人電腦

1988--

Laptops 筆記型電腦

1994--

DNA Computing; Quantum Computing

Moore‘s Law (

摩爾定律

1965, Gordon Moore) Number of transistors/square inch on integrated circuits doubles every 18 months.

每平方英吋的晶體管數量每十八個月就會增加一倍。

Development of Computer Languages

電腦語言演化簡史

• • • • • • • • • • •

1854--

British mathematician George Boole devises binary algebra.

1936--

Turing Machine (Alan Turing)

1958

--Common Business Oriented Language (COBOL)

1958

--List Processor (LISP)

1958

--ALGOL 1963-- Beginners All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC)

1967

--Formula Translation (FORTRAN)

1971

--PASCAL

1972

--C (ALGOL-60)

1979

--Ada

1983

—C++

Development of Operating Systems

作業系統演化簡史

•

1969--

UNIX •

1978

--APPLE •

1981--

MS-DOS •

1985

—Microsoft WINDOWS •

1991

—LINUX (Linus Torvalds)

(Tim Berners-Lee,1989)

雲端計算

Cloud Computing

Next Computing Tool---Worldwide Grid

下一代計算工具---全球網格

LCG Service Hierarchy

服務架構

• • •

Tier-0 – the accelerator centre Data acquisition & initial processing Long-term data curation Distribution of data



Tier-1 centres Canada – Triumf (Vancouver) France – IN2P3 (Lyon) Germany – Forschunszentrum Karlsruhe Italy – CNAF (Bologna) Netherlands – NIKHEF/SARA (Amsterdam) Nordic countries – distributed Tier-1 Spain – PIC (Barcelona) Taiwan – Academia SInica (Taipei) UK – CLRC (Oxford) US – FermiLab (Illinois) – Brookhaven (NY)

• • • • •

Tier-1 – “online” to the data acquisition process



high availability Major computing centres – high level of service quality Managed Mass Storage



grid-enabled data service Data-heavy analysis National, regional support Academia Sinica Grid Centre

• •

Tier-2 – ~100 centres in ~40 countries Simulation End-user analysis – batch and interactive

•

Global Science needs a Global Grid

全球科學需要一個全球網格

LCG depends on two major science grid infrastructures – LCG

依賴兩個主要的科學網格基本架構

EGEE and the US Open Science Grid

What Next?

未來的計算工具

?