Transcript Migrations1 - Université d`Ottawa

The Coming of La Tène
The Spread of Celtic Civilization: Invention and
Emigration
CARNYX
THE DYING GAUL
BATTERSEA
SHIELD
LONDON
c
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Change came from the north. One of
these news focuses of power was to
found some 150 kms NW of the old
Hallstatt regions in the valley of the
Moselle close to its confluence with the
Rhine. It is possible that in this early
period of La Tene there were two major
centres of power, one in the Neckar region
(Hohenasperg) and the other on the
Moselle.
La Tène Culture
The Moselle region became more
importandt by the end of that century
(c400BC).
 Throughout this period contacts were
maintained with the Etruscan world to the
south (Italy).
 The second major area of innovation in
the Early La Tene was in the Marne Valley,
some 150 kms directly north of the old
Hallstatt areas, eg Vix.
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La Tène Culture
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During the fifith century BC occupation of the
area grew, and although one grave has been
found with the Hallstatt four-wheeled cart,
the majority of the cart burials have twowheels.
Characteristically the dead aristocrat was
buried in a pit accompanied by the vehicle, a
range of horse-trappings and a drinking set.
Some imports from Eturia and Greece also
found. One Greek item dating to 420BC.
La Tène Culture
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Marnian culture (ie on the river Marne) plays
an important part in the development of a
distinctive style of Celtic art.
What was the relationship between the
Moselle communities and those of the Marne?
Both shared a common warrior-dominated
social system and some levels of a common
material culture, based on exchange
networks.
La Tène Culture
Possibly though, Marne was dependant on
Moselle for the importation of high status
Mediteranean goods.
 The fifth century (400sBC) sees the
development of communication extending
from the Po valley in Northern Italy,
through the territory of the Veneti (Venice
and the region around), along the eastern
fringes of the Alps, north to Bohemia.
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La Tène Culture
In that area an important site developed,
called Zavist south of Prague.
 It was established during the Hallstatt
period, and later developed during the
fifth century to be a major site.
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La Tène Culture
It can be said that during the fifth century
(early La Tene in the 400s BC), two
regions can be identified as being areas of
Celtic innovation:
 The Marne-Moselle zone in the west with
its trading links with the Po Valley in
northern Italy via the central Alpine
passes, and a Bohemian zone in the east
with links to the Adriatic via the eastern
routes around the Alps.
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La Tène Culture
Both these cultural zones had first begun
to develop during the late Hallstatt
periods.
 But it is noticeable that the core of the old
Hallstatt so dominant in the late sixth and
early fifth centuries (500s-400sBC) had
now become cultural backwaters.
(Hohenasperg).
 The centre had decayed, the periphery
had flourished. Why?
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La Tène Culture
Some have argued that changes in
trading pressures from the Mediterannean
had caused social dislocation north of the
Alps, unbalancing the prestige goods
economy.
 The Greek trade routes may have
eventually favoured the west
Mediteranean place more power in the
hands of the Etruscans.
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La Tène Culture: what happened to
Hallstatt
But the causes may have little to do with
the Mediteranean, but instead the social
dynamics and pressures in the northern
Alpine areas.
 Given the warrior nature of the peripheral
society (with an emphasis on raiding)
aggressive moves against the west
Hallstatt may have destabilized and
destroyed the old economic system.
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La Tène Culture
With such developments taking place,
even greater changes were about to bring
closer contact between the Celticspeaking peoples of the new La Tene
culture and those of the Mediterranean
and neighbouring areas:
 The Celtic Migrations by about 400BC.
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La Tène Culture
The fifth century BC is characterised by
what seems to be the sudden demise of
the Hallstatt civilisation.
 The important hillfort of Mont Lassois and
Heuneberg were abandoned, and as a
result the rich burials come to an end.
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The End of the Hallstatt
Civilisation
There may have been wars between the
two vying Celtic cultures.
 The Heuneberg site was burned down but
it cannot be ascertained whether this was
because of internal strife or attack from
outside.
 Some sites seem to show a continuity. Eg
the Keinaspergle grave at Asperg. (This is
the Hohenasperg region where Hochdorf
is situated).
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The End of the Hallstatt
Civilisation
La Tene Civilisation
The Classical Celtic Period
The new era takes its name from a
famous archaeological site in Switzerland.
Once again it is mainly finds from
cemetaries which provide us with an
image of the first Celts.
 There are few written sources which
document this period of emergence
(c450BC), so we depend on archaeology.
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The Formation of La Tène
Typical of this new era is a different
artistic style, again subject to influences
from the Mediterranean.
 This time however, this was not merely
imitation of Greek and Etruscan originals,
but gave rise to new creations with an
unmistakable and original art-style.
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The Formation of La Tène
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Despite evidence of some continuity in the
Hallstatt areas, there is considerable
evidence that the areas immediately to the
north (the cradle of La Tene culture)
imported specific kinds of item from the
north of Italy, items not found in the Hallstatt
regions.
This leads to the conclusion that a new trade
axis had been formed linking the Moselle
chieftains directly with the Etruscan cities of
northern Italy (c500-450BC).
The Formation of La Tène
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By the middle of the fifth century the
centre of innovation in western Europe
(Celtic Europe) had moved decisively
away from the Burgundy-S. Germany axis
(Hallstatt D), to the more northerly
Marne-Moselle-Bohemia arc where the
new La Tene culture flourished.
The Formation of La Tène
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The spread of La Tene art styles throughout
Europe was a remarkable phenomenon.
It could be argued that La Tene art was the
first truly pan-European art style.
Its spread to the south and the east of the
Marne-Moselle region was accelerated by folk
movements.
But its adoptionin the west and the north, as
far as Ireland and Scotland, is a far more
complex development.
The Formation of La Tène
In the British Isles and Ireland, we see,
rather than immigration of La Tene
peoples into the area, many levels of
acculturation, involving the movement of
actual objects by exchange to selective
immitation of La Tene motifs by local
craftsmen.
 The same process would have been true
for much of Atlantic Europe, in western
France, Spain and Portugal.
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The Formation of La Tène
It has been suggested that knowledge of
La Tene art spread to Britain and Ireland
via Brittany (Armorica). Items found in
Britain can be compared with variations of
La Tene styles found in Brittany.
 But there is also evidence that other parts
of Britain received their concepts of LT by
way of the southern North Sea area,
which would have impacted mainly on the
East Coast of Britain.
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The Formation of La Tène
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These ‘trade routes’ had already been
extensively used in the Bronze Age
period.
The Formation of La Tène
The first representations of this art are
found on brooches and clasps (fibulae),
and later on scabbardsm swords, helmets,
torques, knives, pottery, flagons, and
coins.
 Wild life and imaginary animals are a
frequent motif. Winged animals. Animals
with human faces. Horses with human
faces, birds heads, animal heads.
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The origins of the La Tène style
Numerous attempts have been made to
interpret such objets in the light of what
we know about later Celtic religion.
 Some of the ‘mask fibulae’ which had
human faces were buried for ritual
reasons.
 But since most of this ‘new’ art seems not
to be a direct development of Hallstatt art
(eg the Hochdorf burial), what can be said
about their origins?
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The origins of the La Tène style
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Paul Jacobsthal, one of the major scholars
in the field of Celtic art, was responsible
for developing the idea that, besides
having Etruscan roots, the formal Celtic
language of art, had other eastern
European origins belonging to the
Scythians and the Thracians, whose own
art had been influenced by the Persians
(Iranian art).
The origins of the La Tène style
There are undoubtedly characteristics
which constitute common ground between
the LT Celts and the eastern horsemen
(see Herodotus, IV, 65-66= a reference to
the fact that the LT Celts and the
Scythians were head-hunters in war).
 Drinking horns, much beloved by the
Celts (Hochdorf), were also typical of the
Scythians, and other eastern peoples. (In
Italy they are almost unknown).
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The origins of the La Tène style
In Scythian culture, objects with animal
heads are frequently found.
 From Kleinaspergle, one of the items
found, the depiction of rams’ heads on the
drinking horns is reminiscent of the
Scythian artifacts from southern Russia.
 Perhaps the LT Celts did not have a welldeveloped trade system with peoples of
the east (as they had with the
Mediterranean peoples).
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The origins of the La Tène style
But certain objects given as diplomatic
gifts may have had a significant influence
upon the emerging Celtic art of the early
La Tene period.
 All the evidence suggests that, at the
level of the ruling classes, there were
indeed contacts.
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The origins of the La Tène style
The new early La Tene chiefdoms retained
some of the characteristics if their
Hallstatt D predescessors, but were
different in a number of ways:
 The La Tene burials which had an
accompanying vehicle, now favoured a
two-wheeled chariot (perhaps inspired by
the Etruscans).
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Differences between Hallstatt and
La Tene
Another significant difference was the
prevalence of weapons in the La Tene
graves.
 Many of the male deceased, not only the
elite, were accompanied by their swords
and spears, and occasionally their
helmets.
 In the Hallstatt D graves, only knives (for
feasting and hunting) were generally
found.
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Differences between Hallstatt and
La Tene
we may speculate:
One possibility is that the communities to
the north of the Hallstatt regions had for
some time been occupied in raiding to
acquire slaves and other commodities
which they exchanged with the Hallstatt
elites.
 Increasing demands for such commodities
would have exacerbated their warlike
tendencies.
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Differences between Hallstatt and
La Tene
Undoubtedly, the period c500BC was a
time of upheaval, leading eventually to
the dominance of elites and specifically,
‘peoples’ whom we call La Tene Celts.
 Within about one hundred years
(c400BC), we witness huge folkmovements, now reflected in the classical
writings of the Greeks, north of the Alps.
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Migrations of La Tène ‘Celts’.
Celtic-speaking peoples poured through
the Alpine passes, to conquer and raid
northern Italy. They will settle in the Po
Valley. With this major event, trade with
Etruria ends, and a more detailed history
of the Celts can begin.
 At the same time, other Celtic ‘peoples’
went east along the Danube river valley,
and into the Balkans, and within a century
had reached Greece, and eventually
Anatolia (Turkey).
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Migrations of La Tène ‘Celts’.
These were undoubtedly La Tene Celts,
and probably most of the emigration
came from Marne- Moselle areas. Some of
the same tribal names are found there
and in eastern France and northern Italy.
 However, the migrations may have come
from a variety of areas. In many cases
the archaeology cannot help.
 Note that there is no suggestion of
migrations to Britain and Ireland.
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Migrations of La Tène ‘Celts’.
What caused the migrations?
Overpopulation seems to be the most
likely reason. Two writers from antiquity
(Pompeius Trogus and Plutarch) both
state this as being the main reason.
 A similar situation had arisen in Greece
several centuries earlier when cities sent
out colonists to other parts of the
Mediterranean (Italy, Massalia etc).
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Migrations of La Tène ‘Celts’.
Hallstatt
The Romans sent out ambassadors to the
Gauls to try and prevent them from
coming to Rome.
 In exchange for peace the Etruscans were
to give the Gauls land.
 What right did they have being in Etruria
anyway. They carried justice on the point
of their swords.
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The Attack on Rome (Livy c64BC12AD)
The main body of the Roman army
collapsed as soon as they heard the
Gaulish war-cries.
 The Gauls were amazed that they had
won a battle so easily.
 They marched to Rome and reached the
city at sunset.
 In the morning they entered the city
gates cautiously but calm.
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The Attack on Rome, c390BC
They made their way to the Forum
admiring temples and examining the
Citadel above.
 They dispersed into small numbers in
search of plunder.
 Everywhere was silent.
 One of the Gauls touched the long beard
of a certain Marcus Papirius. The Roman
knocked him on his head. Fighting began.
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The Attack on Rome, c390BC
Quintus Sulpicius met with the gaulish
chieftain brennos and agreed to pay
1000pounds of gold.
 The Romans were insulted further when
the weights used by the Gauls were
heavier than those used by the Romans.
 Brennus flung his sword on the scale and
shouted Vae Victis (Woe to the
Conquered).
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The Attack on Rome, c390BC
After the attack on Rome in c390BC,
further attempts were made to enter
northern and central Italy. 344BC.
 A treaty was concluded that lasted until
c300BC.
 A new migration began in 299BC from the
other side of the Alps.
 295BC Gauls form an alliance with the
Samnites and fought against the Romans.
The Gauls also suffered some defeats.
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Celtic intrusions into Italy
(Polybius)
The Celtic tribes of Northern
Italy
By 284BC the Romans had managed to
stem the flow of migration and went as
far as creating a Roman colony in SE
Gaul.
 283BC the Boii lead an army almost as far
as Rome. They included Etruscans in their
army.
 282BC another attempt by the Gauls (5
years before the defeat of the Gauls at
Delphi).
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Celtic intrusions into Italy
(Polybius)
After this period the Gauls and Romans
lived in peace for some 45 years until
c237BC. A new generation of Celts from
the northern Italy Alps wanted to invade
Italy with help from the Alpine Celts.
 The Boii attack the transalpine Celts.
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Celtic intrusions into Italy
(Polybius)
There was fear amongst the Gauls and
especially the Boii that the Romans
wanted to expel them from Italy
altogether.
 The Insubres and the Boii joined together
and sent messages to the Gallic(Gaulish)
tribes who lived in the Alps and near the
river Rhone. These were the Gaesatae.
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The battle of Telemon 225BC
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Polybius gives the names of the Gaesatae
leaders: Concilitanus and Aneroestes.
They pledged themselves to be loyal allies
and reminded their audience of the exploits
of their ancestors. (the Gauls in Italy).
It is mentioned at this point that the Gauls
occupied the city of Rome for 7 months.
Their army contained more leaders and
celebrated warriors than ever before.
The battle of Telemon 225BC
In 225BC the Gaesatae crossed the Alps
and descended into the valley of the Po.
The Insubres and the Boii stood loyally
but the Veneti and the Cenomani took the
side of the Romans. There was a Celtic
army of some 50,000 infantrymen and
20,000 cavalry and chariots. They
advanced into Eturia (NW Italy).
 The Romans sent troops to meet them.
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The battle of Telemon 225BC
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The age-old terror inspired by the Gauls had
never been altogether dispelled (387BC). The
Veneti and the Cenomani provided the
Romans with 20,000 men.
They advanced in the first place upon Rome.
Three days march from Rome they fought a
battle at Clusium where the Romans were
defeated. Perhaps fatally, Aneroestes argued
that with so much booty they should not
engage again in battle but return northwards.
The battle of Telemon 225BC
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They marched north but were followed by the
Roman army, but another force was also to
meet them near Telemon in Eturia.
The Gaesatae were to the rear of the Celtic
army and behind them the Insubres. On the
front were the Boii and the Taurisci.
The Insubres and the Boii wore their trousers
and a light cloak, whilst the Gaesatae went
naked with a shield as their only protection.
The battle of Telemon 225BC
Telemon
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One of the Roman leaders Gaius Atilus was
killed and his head was brought to the Celtic
king.
The real battle was yet to begin. The Romans
were dismayed by the splendid array of the
Celtic host, and the typical ear-splitting din
they created. There were countless horns and
trumpets being blown simultaneously.
The whole army was shouting its war-cries.
The battle of Telemon 225BC
Beside this, the aspect and the
movements of the naked warriors in the
front ranks made a terrifying spectacle.
They were all men of splendid physique
and in the prime of life.
 In the leading companies, they were
adorned in golden necklaces (torcs) and
bracelets.
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The battle of Telemon 225BC
The Roman javelin-throwers.
The Gaesatae’s shields were not sufficient
protection )not big enough). Hand-tohand fighting was undertaken by the Boii,
Insubres and Taurisci.
 Polybius remarks that the Gaulish sword
can only be used for cutting and not for
thrusting.
 40,000 Celts were reputedly killed. 10,000
taken prisoner including their king
Concolitanus.
 Aneroestes escaped with his retinue and
later commited suicide.
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The battle of Telemon 225BC
In the aftermath the Romans entered the
Boii territory of northern Italy and
plundered their settlements and oppida.
 In 224BC the Romans invaded Celtic
territory near Marseilles.
 The Insubres from their temple in the
oppidum at Mediolanum (Milan) took their
‘golden standards’. It is claimed by
Polybius that the temple was dedicated to
‘Minerva’ (usually the equivalent of the
Celtic war-goddess).
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The battle of Telemon 225BC
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The Gauls of northern Italy attempted to make
peace with the Romans. But the Romans were
uncompromising. The Gaesatae were hired again
but this time Mediolanum fell to the Romans.
Plybius mentions at the end of his account that
he was to see in his own lifetime (c180BC) the
Celtic tribes being completely expelled from the
Po Valley region.
The Insubres were finally pacified in 194BC. The
Boii three years later.
There must have been a considerable withdrawal
back to the Alps.
The battle of Telemon 225BC
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One of the Gaulish groups who had invaded
Greece was led by Brennus.
Belgius his countryman abandoned plunder
after his victory against the Macedoneans.
B. led an army of 150,000 infantry, 15,000
calvalry.
The invasion was characterized by plunder:
especially crops and farms. Brennus’army
meets resistance but the Greeks are easily
defeated.
Justin’s account (4th centuryAD) of the attack on
Delphi during the invasion of Greece. 279BC
Brennus plunders temples joking that the
gods were rich and should be generous to
people.
 He begins his march to Delphi saying the
immortals needed no wealth as they
commonly wasted it on people.
 They arrive at Delphi (the reason for
going here was plunder rather than any
other motive).
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Justin’s account of the attack on Delphi
during the invasion of Greece.
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The temple of Apollo at Delphi on Mt
Parnassus. The echo of voices against the
cliff walls.
Brennus comes to the temple and wonders
whether he should wait until the following
day before beginning the plunder, since the
Gauls had endured a long, hard journey from
the north.
They spread out and looted everything they
could find.
The Greeks amassed an army of 4,000
Brennus had an army of 65,000infantry.
Justin’s account of the attack on Delphi
during the invasion of Greece.
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The Gauls had engaged in a drinking binge the
previous night before the battle.
An earthquake sheared off the side of a
mountain, and crushed many of the Gauls below,
freezing hail.
Brennus in the face of defeat kills himself with a
dagger.
His second-in-command flees from Greece with
10,000 wounded.
On their journey they suffered unrelenting rain,
biting snow and hunger.
The inhabitants of the lands they passed through
harassed the dwindling force.
Justin’s account of the attack on Delphi
during the invasion of Greece.
Pausanias also gives his account of the
invasion of Greece and (more specifically)
the attack on Delphi.
 He names more of the Celtic high
command: Kerethrios, Brennos and
Akichorios, Bolgios.
 He mentions the size of the invading army
(their aim was to raid rather than find
new land for colonization).152,000
infantrymen and 20,000 cavalry. The
method of trimarkisia. P 456 book 1.
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Pausanias (2nd century AD)
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The Gaulish equipment was weak as the
traditional oblong shields were all the
protection their bodies had. They rushed at
their adversariesa like wild beasts, full of
rage and temperament, with no kind of
reasoning at all. The blind fury never left
them while there was breath in their
bodies.Some of them even pulled the spears
they were hit by out of their wounds and
threw them or stabbed with them.
They have no natural pity for the dead.
The atrocities committed by the Gauls on the
Kallieans.
Pausanias (2nd century AD)
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The attack on Delphi. Brennos’ army
marches towards Delphi. Pausanias
describes lightening and earthquakes as
well as apparitions of Greek heroes of the
past. Frost and snow. The Gauls were
seized by a panic terror.
Pausanias (2nd century AD)
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After being defeated at Delphi, Pausanias
says that most of the Gauls crossed over
to Asia by boats where they plundered the
coast. After a time they were driven
inland and they took the city of Ankora
and occupied the area around. (278, 276
BC).
Pausanias (2nd century AD)
The dominance of the Gauls in Asia Minor.
Livy relates how the Gauls had arrived in
Asia Minor in 278BC.
 Tolostobogii, Trocmi, Tectosages.
 Their attacks on hellenic colonies and the
native kingdoms of Asia Minor.
 Gnaeus Manlius and his ancestor Manlius
Torquatus.
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The defeat of Galatia.187BC