Transcript Job Design, Work Measurement and Labor Standards

Job Design, Work Measurement
and Labor Standards
Eng. R. L. Nkumbwa™
www.nkumbwa.weebly.com
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Outline
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Job Design
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Job specialization
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Job expansion
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Psychological components
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Self-directed teams
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Motivation and incentive systems
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Ergonomics and work methods
Work Measurement
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Time Studies
Work Sampling
Labor Standards
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Job Design
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Specifying the tasks that make up
a job for an individual or group
Involves determining
 What is to be done (i.e., responses)
 How it is to be done (i.e., tools etc.)
 Why it is to be done (i.e., purpose)
Results in job description
 Shows nature of job in task-related behaviors
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Job Classifications and
Work Rules
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Specify
 who can do what
 when they can do it
 under what conditions they can do it
Occasionally the result of union pressure
Restricts flexibility in assignments; consequently
restricts efficiency of production
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Work Schedules
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Standard work schedule
 five eight-hour days
Flex-time
 allows employees, within prescribed limits, to
determine their own schedules
Flexible work week
 four 10-hour days
Part-time
 less than eight hours per day, or an irregular
schedule
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Components of Job Design
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Job specialization
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Job expansion
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Psychological components
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Self-directed teams
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Motivation and incentive systems
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Ergonomics and work methods
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Job Specialization
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Involves
 Breaking jobs into small component parts
 Assigning specialists to do each part
First noted by Adam Smith (1776)
 Observed how workers in pin factory divided
tasks into smaller components
Found in manufacturing &
service industries
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Job Specialization Often Reduces Cost
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Greater dexterity & faster learning
Less lost time changing jobs or tools
Use of more specialized tools
Pay only for needed skills
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Job Expansion
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Process of adding more variety to jobs
Intended to reduce boredom associated with labor
specialization
Methods
 Job enlargement
 Job enrichment
 Job rotation
 Employee empowerment
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Job Rotation
Pediatrics
Maternity
© 1995
Corel Corp.
© 1995 Corel
Corp.
© 1995
Corel
Corp.
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Geriatrics
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Employee Empowerment
Employee Empowerment
Decision-Making
Control
Planning
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Psychological Components of Job Design
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Individuals have values, attitudes,
and emotions that affect job results
 Example: Work is a social experience
that affects belonging needs
Effective worker behavior comes mostly from within the
individual
 Scientific management argued for external financial
rewards
First examined in ‘Hawthorne studies’
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Hawthorne Studies
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Conducted in late 1920’s
Western Electric Hawthorne plant
Showed importance of the individual in the workplace
Showed the presence of a social system in the
workplace
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Hawthorne Studies: Workplace
Lighting
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Originally intended to examine effects of lighting on
productivity
 Scientific management proposed that physical
conditions affect productivity
Result: Productivity increased regardless of lighting
level
Conclusion: Increased productivity was due to workers’
receiving attention
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Hawthorne Studies: Piecework Pay
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Examined effects of group piecework pay system on
productivity
Workers under piecework system should produce as much as
possible
 Scientific management assumes that people are
motivated only by money
Result: Production less than maximum
Conclusion: Social pressure caused workers to produce at
group-norm level
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Self-Directed Teams
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Group of empowered individuals working together for a
common goal
May be organized for short-term or
long-term objectives
Reasons for effectiveness
 Provide employee empowerment
 Provide core job characteristics
 Meet psychological needs (e.g., belonging)
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Job Design Continuum
Self-directed
Teams
Empowerment
Enrichment
Increasing reliance
on employees’
contribution and
increasing
acceptance of
responsibility by
employee
Enlargement
Specialization
Job Expansion
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Core Job Characteristics
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Skill variety
Job identify
Job significance
Autonomy
Feedback
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Motivation
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Worker performance depends on
 Motivation
 Ability
 Work environment
Motivation is the set of forces that compel behavior
Money may serve as a psychological & financial
motivator
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Motivation and Money
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Taylor’s scientific management (1911)
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Maslow’s theory (1943)
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Workers are motivated mainly by money
Suggested piece-rate system
People are motivated by hierarchy of needs,
which includes money
Herzberg (1959)
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Money either dissatisfies or is neutral in its
effect
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Monetary Incentives
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Bonuses: Cash & stock options
Profit sharing: Distribution of profits
Gain sharing: Reward for company performance (e.g.,
cost reduction)
 Scanlon plan is most popular (cost reduction.)
Incentive systems
 Measured daywork: Pay based on standard time
 Piece rate: Pay based on pieces done
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization
Use of abilities
Self-fulfillment
Ego
Self Respect
Social
Group Interaction
Job Status
Safety
Physical Safety
Job Security
Physiology
Food
Shelter
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Herzberg’s Motivation/Hygiene Factors
Job Dissatisfiers
(Hygiene)
Job Satisfiers
(Motivators)
Company policies and administration
Achievement
Supervision - technical
Recognition
Working conditions
Advancement
Interpersonal relations - supervision
Work itself
Status
Responsibility
Job security
Personal growth
Salary
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Job Characteristics
Core Job Characteristics
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Motivation
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Satisfaction
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Job performance
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Absenteeism & turnover
Psychological States
Personal & Work
Outcomes
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Hackman & Oldham
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Ergonomics and Work Methods
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Worker performance depends on
 Motivation
 Ability
 Work environment
Foundation laid by Frederick Taylor
 Match employees to task
 Develop work methods
 Establish work standards
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Ergonomics
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Study of work
Also called ‘human factors’
Involves human-machine interface
Examples
 Mouse
 Keyboard
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Methods Analysis
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Focuses on how task is performed
Used to analyze
 Movement of body, people, or material
 Activities of people & machines
Tools
 Process chart
 Flow diagram
 Activity chart
 Operations chart (right-hand, left-hand)
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Methods Analysis
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Movement of individuals or materials (Flow diagrams or
process charts)
Activity of human and machine and crew activity (Activity
charts)
Body movement (primarily hands) (Micro-motion charts)
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The Visual Workplace
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Uses low-cost visual devices to share information
quickly and accurately.
Displays and graphs replace paper
Provides real-time information
System should focus on improvement, not merely
monitoring
Can provide both production and financial data
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The Visual Workplace
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What is Work Measurement?
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Determining the amount of worker time required to
generate one unit of output
Provides labor standards
 Target amount of time required to perform a job
under normal working conditions
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Time Studies
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Labor standards are based on observing worker doing task
 Observe only a sample of work
 Use average time & pace to set standard
Disadvantages
 Requires a trained & experienced analyst
 Standard cannot be set before task is performed
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Eight Steps to Conducting a Time Study
1.
Define the task to be studied (after a methods analysis)
2.
Break down the task into precise elements
3.
Decide how many times each element of the task must be
measured
4.
Record the times and ratings of performance for the task
elements
5.
Compute the average observed cycle time (element times
adjusted for unusual influences)
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Eight Steps to Conducting a Time Study
6.
Compute the normal time for each task element:
Normal time = (Average actual cycle time)
x (Rating factor)
7.
Sum the normal times for each element to develop a total
normal time for the task
Compute the standard time:
8.
Standard time =
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Total normal time
1- Allowance factor
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Allowances
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Personal time allowance - 4% - 7% of total time - use
of restroom, water fountain, etc.
Delay allowance - based upon actual delays that occur
Fatigue allowance - to compensate for physical or
mental strain, noise level, tediousness, heat and
humidity, assumption of an abnormal position, etc.
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Rest Allowances (%) for Various Classes of Work
1. Constant allowance
(a) Personal allowance
……………...
(b) Basic fatigue allowance
…………
5
4
(A) Standing allowance
……………..
(B) Abnormal position
2
2.Variable allowances:
(I) Awkward (bending) ………….
(ii) Very awkward (lying, stretching)
……………………..
2
7
(C) Use of force or muscular
energy in lifting, pulling,
pushing
Weight lifted (pounds)
20 …………………………………
40………………………………….
60………………………………….
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9
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Rest Allowances (%) for Various Classes of Work
(D) Bad light
(i) Well below recommended …..
(ii) Quite inadequate …………….
(E) Atmospheric conditions (heat and
humidity)
Variable …………………………..
(F) Close attention
(i) Fine or exacting ………………
(ii)Very fine or very exacting …...
(G) Noise level
(i) Intermittent – loud ……………
(ii) Intermittent – very loud or
high-pitched
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5
1-10
2
5
2
5
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Rest Allowances (%) for Various
Classes of Work
(H) Mental strain
(i) Complex or wide span of
attention ………………………
(ii) Very complex …………….
(I) Tediousness
(i) Tedious …………………….
(ii) Very tedious ………………
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4
2
5
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Time Studies - Sample Size
zs 

Sample size, n   
 hx 

h = accuracy level desired as percent of job element,
expressed as a decimal (5% = 0.05)
z = number of standard deviations required for the
desired level of confidence
s = standard deviation of the initial sample
x = mean of the initial sample
Note : s 
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

x

x
 i
n 1
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Considerations in Determining Sample Size
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How accurate do you want to be?
What level of confidence do you want your measurements
to have?
How much variation exists within the job elements?
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Common z values
Desired Confidence
Level (%)
Z Value
90.11
1.65
95.00
1.96
95.45
2.00
99.11
2.58
99.73
3.00
99.0
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Time Study Equations
Allowance factor =
Nonwork time
Total time
Average element time =
 Element times
Number of cycles
Normal time =
Standard time =
Average element time * Perf. Rating
Total normal time
1 - Allowance factor
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Predetermined Time Standards
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Labor standards are set from times in published tables (e.g.,
MTM Table)
Procedure
 Divide manual work into basic elements
 Look up basic element times in table; sum
Advantages
 Times established in laboratory setting
 Useful for planning tasks
 Widely accepted by unions
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MTM Table for Reach Motion
Hand in
Time TMU
Motion
Distance
Moved (in)
A
B
C
A
B
3/4 or less
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.6
1.6
1
2.5
2.5
3.6
2.3
2.3
2
4.0
4.0
5.9
3.5
2.7
A Reach to object in fixed location.
B Reach to object in variable locations.
C Reach to object jumbled with others.
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1 TMU = .0006
minutes
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Sample MTM Table for GET and PLACE
Motions
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MTM-HC Analysis: Pouring Tube Specimen
Element Description
Element
Time
Get tube from rack
AA2
35
Get stopper, place on counter
AA2
35
Get centrifuge tube, place at
sample tube
AD2
45
PT
83
Place tubes in rack (simo)
PC2
40
0.0006*238=Total standard
minutes = 0.14
Total
TMU
238
Pour (3 sec.)
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Work Sampling
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Labor standard is set using output and % of time worker
spends on tasks
Involves observing worker at random times over a long
period
Advantages
 Less expensive than time studies
 Observer requires little training
Disadvantages
 Ineffective with short cycles
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Work Sampling
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Used for
 Ratio delay studies
 Setting labor standards
 Measuring worker performance
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The Five Step
Work Sampling Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Take a preliminary sample to obtain an estimate of the
parameter value
Compute the sample size required
Prepare a schedule for observing the worker at appropriate
times
Observe and record worker activities; rate worker
performance
Determine how workers spend their time (usually as a
percent)
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Work Sampling - Sample Size
z  p  p 
n
h
p = estimated value of sample proportion (of time worker is
observed busy or idle)
h = accuracy level desired in percent, expressed as a decimal
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Work Sampling Equations
Normal Time =
(Total Time) (% of time working) (Rating)
Standard Time =
Number of units Produced
Normal Time
1 - Allowance
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Uses of Labor Standards
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Costing labor content of products
Planning staffing needs
Cost & time estimates for bids
Planning production
Wage-incentive plans
Employee efficiency
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Sources of Labor Standards
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Historical experience
Time studies
Predetermined time standards (MTM)
Work sampling
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Labor Standards - Historical Experience
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Labor standards are based on how many labor-hours
were needed in past
Least preferred method
Advantages
 Easy and inexpensive to obtain standard
Disadvantages
 Unknown accuracy due to unusual occurrences,
unknown pace etc.
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Uses of Labor Standards
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Costing labor content of products
Planning staffing needs
Estimating time and cost for bids
Planning production (crew size and work balance)
Estimating expected production
Basing wage-incentive plans
Determining employee efficiency
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