Unit 6 - Religion and Magic
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Transcript Unit 6 - Religion and Magic
Mythology and the Supernatural
What is the purpose of religion
from an anthropological
perspective?
What is religion?
“Any set of attitudes, beliefs, and
practices pertaining to
supernatural power, whether
they be forces, gods, spirits,
ghosts, or demons”
Simple definition, extremely
difficult cultural concept
Associated with all known contemporary societies
Evidence of religious practices 60,000 years ago in early
homo sapiens
Anthropological concerns/questions:
Why is religion found in all societies?
How and why does it vary from society to society?
Most believe religion is a human creation in response
to certain needs (4):
Intellectual understanding, reversion to childhood
feelings, anxiety and uncertainty, and a need for
community
First 3 theories deal with psychological
needs
Understanding the world around us, and our
place in it
Last theory (need for community) – Emile
Durkheim
Humans living in societies feel pushed and
pulled to act a certain way
Religion arises out of this to affirm a person’s
place in society, enhance community, and
give people confidence
Example: totem animals
In aboriginal societies in Australia, an animal
comes to represent the social group
The animal on its own isn’t significant (lizard,
rat, frog, etc.) but it’s representation of the social
group is significant to that society
Types of supernatural forces and beings
Many societies in Polynesia believe in
mana
Supernatural, impersonal force thought to
inhabit some objects and people, but not
others
Think The Force in Star War…more on this
later
Is there anything like this in our society?
Very similar to superstitions (ex. A baseball
player’s “lucky bat” or a four-leaf clover)
Idea of a taboo is very similar to mana
Difference: objects with mana are to be
touched; taboo objects are not, for their
power can cause harm
Types of supernatural forces and beings
Supernatural beings fall into two categories: nonhuman
and human origin
Nonhuman: gods and spirits
Human: ghosts and ancestral spirits
Types of supernatural forces and beings
Gods
Beliefs usually that gods created
themselves, then created other things
(other gods, the world, humans, plants
and animals, etc.)
Examples
Maori of New Zeland believe in 3 gods:
sea, forest, agriculture
They call on each god as needed
Ancient Romans: much more specialized
There were 3 gods just for the plow, one for
sowing seeds, one for weeding, one for storing
grain, one for manuring, etc…
Types of supernatural forces and beings
Spirits
Usually below gods in prestige
Guardian spirits, mischievous spirits
(hobgoblins)
Sanpoil N.A.’s of Washington sent little
boys and girls out overnight to acquire
their Guardian spirits
Types of supernatural forces
and beings
Ghosts and ancestor spirits
The idea that ghosts can be
perceived by humans is
almost universal across
cultures!
Explanations?
Many cues in everyday life
that evoke remembrance of a
loved one (smells, pictures,
dreams, etc.)
No coincidence that ghosts are
usually close relatives, not
strangers
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam – all believe in one
god
However, there is room for other supernatural beings
(ex. The Devil, angels, demons, etc.)
Why do some societies have a belief in a “high god”
and others do not?
G.E. Swanson: cross-cultural study of 50 societies
Societies with complex social hierarchy (ex. Family, clan,
cheifdom) – 17 out of 20 believed in a “high god”
Societies without complex social hierarchy – 2 out of 19
believed in a “high god”
Conclusion? Strong suggestion that the realm of the gods
parallels and reflects everyday social and political worlds
How do people interact with the
supernatural?
A short list (not exhaustive):
Prayer (asking for supernatural help)
Physiological experience (doing
things to the body and mind; ex.
trances)
Simulation (manipulating imitations
of things)
Feasts
Sacrifices
Different than prayer
Prayer is asking; magic is
compelling the supernatural to act
in some intended way
We tend to associate this with
“simpler” societies
Keep in mind – over 80,000 people
in the U.S. take magic seriously,
and claim to be witches
Magic is often employed in
societies to bring about cures as
well as to cause harm
Ju-ju charm protecting a
canoe in Suriname, 1954
Central to many societies’ daily lives
Azande of Zaire (DRoC)
Used to explain the unexplainable
A man is gored by an elephant. He
must have been bewitched, because
he’s never been gored by an elephant
before
A man goes to his beer hut at night,
lights some straw on fire, holds it up
to see his beer, and his hut catches on
fire. Must be witchcraft, since he has
done this hundreds of times before,
and his hut never caught on fire
A skilled potter produces a bowl and it
cracks. Witchcraft
Cultural roots of witch craft
One theory: political turmoil and
fear of others
The witch craze of Europe (think
Salem 1692)
In 1692 the government of Mass.
was falling apart. No governor, and
judicial practices broke down
Led to the accusation of hundreds,
and the execution of 20
Another theory? Disease
Ergot (a fungus) when eaten can
cause hallucinations (it contains
LSD). Symptoms are very similar to
what we saw from the “witches” of
Salem
Could have cultural roots
Why does witchcraft appear in so many societies?
Beatrice Whiting: found in societies which lack
procedures to deal with crime and other offenses
Basically, if you do something wrong the person you wronged
can cause you ill-will
Very similar to karma
Incan society: if you do something wrong, you can bring
destruction to your entire village. Great social control.
Shaman: part-time male specialist
who is involved in healing (usually
has high status in society)
Enters into a trance, journeys to other
worlds in order to get help from
guardians or spirits
Sorcerers and witches: invoke
supernatural forces to cause harm or
ill-will (usually low social and
economic status)
Mediums: very similar to shaman,
but usually female
Urarina Shaman,
Amazonian rainforest, 2006
Priests: full-time male specialists
who are able to relate to gods
beyond the ordinary person’s
control (usually high status)
Dependence on memorized ritual
protects the priest
If a shaman repeatedly fails to cure
illness, he will probably lose his
following
If a priest performs his ritual perfectly
and the gods choose not to respond,
the priest will retain his position and
the ritual will preserve its assumed
effectiveness
Are religions adaptive?
They should be, right? If the purpose of religion is to
reduce the anxieties of a people, the religion should
adapt to changes in society
Contradictions to this
Hindu belief in cows as sacred
May seem to be the opposite of an adaptive custom
However, it is possible that the benefits of a live cow still
outweigh the benefits of a slaughtered cow
Revival religions = efforts to save a dying culture (perceived
or real)
The Seneca and the Religion of Handsome Lake (ca. 1799,
New York)
Handsome Lake and his text, the Gaiwiio (“Good Word”)
Preached the evils of sin, and the path to salvation by temperance
(drunkenness was a huge problem among the Seneca), peace and
social unity, preservation of tribal lands, proacculturation (such as
learning English), and domestic morality
Led to a rapid revival among the Seneca
Agricultural production improved 10-fold, temperance was widely
accepted, public health and hygiene dramatically improved
Handsome Lake church still exists to this day
Cargo Cults – and Yali’s Question
Though there are many differences from
religion to religion, there are also many
“archetypes”
Across cultures, the great hero’s and tales
often have the same components
Joseph Campbell: “The Hero With a
Thousand Faces”
Cross-cultural analysis of world religions
Conclusion: the monomyth
“A hero ventures forth from the world of
common day into a region of supernatural
wonder: fabulous forces are there
encountered and a decisive victory is won:
the hero comes back from this mysterious
adventure with the power to bestow boons
on his fellow man.” – Joseph Campbell
Three sections: Departure, Initiation, and Return
Not all myths have all components of the monomyth
Can be only partial, out of order, etc.
Examples: Osiris (Egyptian), Prometheus (Greek), the
Buddha (Indian), Moses (Judeo-Christian), Christ
(Christian)
All over the place
Many books and movies are based,
either consciously or unconsciously,
on the monomyth
Literature: The Odyssey, Lord of the
Rings, Beowulf, Siddhartha, Harry
Potter, etc.
Music: Jerry Garcia, Jim Morrison, and
Bob Dylan all attribute much of their
music to Campbell’s book
Film: Aladdin, The Lion King, The
Matrix
Perhaps the best (and most direct)
example is Star Wars
George Lucas used The Hero…
deliberately in writing the scripts
How can we, from an anthropological perspective,
account for the universality of religion?
What is the purpose of religion?