Transcript Cognitive Strategies

From Mark H. Anshell’s book Sport Psychology
CHAPTER #2: CHARACTERISTICS OF
SUCCESSFUL ATHLETES
PERSONALITY TRAITS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISPOSITIONS:
 Competitiveness,
confidence and self control would
appear to be strongly linked to performance
success.
A
document that examines any type of
psychological trait is described as an inventory,
scale, or profile.
Difference between Psychological Disposition and
Personality Traits:

Traits are commonly regarded as properties of persons that
dispose them to react in certain ways in given situations and
are narrower in scope than dispositions


Are considered enduring and stable which means:

That individuals have a predisposition to act in a certain way in most but
not all situations

That their actions are consistent /predictable under various conditions
Dispositions are broad, pervasive, encompassing ways of
relating to particular types of people or situations
PERSONALITY TRAITS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISPOSITIONS:
 Personality:
defined in terms of traits possessed by
an individual
 Personality
Inventories have Not been shown to be
consistent from sport to non sport situations
Using Personality Inventories:

Personality scales have been used inappropriately to examine
changes in personality traits over time.

This is in compatible with the design of any instrument that
examines personality because traits are stable and enduring.

Inventories can predict athletic behavior and success only
10% of the time.

Sometimes th terms and factors used in personalities scales
are not universally defined (Who is an athlete?)

Some personality traits are better predictors of success than
others
USING PERSONALITY INVENTORIES:

Answers to questions on a personality inventory can be faked

Lie Scales: include questions inserted in the inventory that are either
discarded when the results are computed or used to detect response
inconsistencies.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI):



Meant to diagnose illness
CPI: Requires a reading comprehension level of 10th grade
MMPI, CPI, and Cattell’s 16 PF: Do not include a single item related to
thoughts, emotions, or behaviors in competitive sport situations. Thus
inventories from these may not be valid as predictors of sports performance.
USING PERSONALITY INVENTORIES:

Primary shortcomings: is the lack of a conceptual (theoretical)
framework with no defined body of literature on which to case
comparisons between athlete and non athletes, male or female, or
elite and non elites. Termed the shotgun approach.

Limitations:

Poor sampling techniques in which whole teams are examined without
controlling for skill level, age, gender, and cultural differences.

Improper use of statistical procedures is a problem. Some statistics are
better than others
USING PERSONALITY INVENTORIES:

Evidence does not support the existence of a consistent
psychological profile of highly successful performers.

Whether these traits are inherited, developed, or both is
not clear.

Results of personality profile cannot predict sports
success perfectly and therefore should not be used as a
way to identify talent.
Personality and Gender Roles:

Gender Role Orientation: (masculine/feminine/androgynous)

These characteristics are not on opposite sides of a spectrum but rather
separate clusters of personality traits.

Gills 1992 – there is no reason why males should possess only
masculine characteristics and female only feminine characteristics.

The healthiest individuals possess both and have a greater flexibility of
behavior.

Gills 1992 – female athletes possess more masculine characteristics
than female non athletes. Competition demands assertive behavior.

LeUnes and Nation 1995 – females who score higher
on perceived feminine traits will experience a higher
degree of gender role conflict and e less comfortable in
competitive sport situations than females with high
androgynous and masculine scores.

Gill 1992 – female athletes do not express a feminine
gender role orientation and they respond with more of
an androgynous orientation than masculine orientation.

Friedman and Berger 1991 – androgynous and
masculine female should succeed in sport without
experiencing the sex (gender) role conflict that the
feminine scorer would feel.

Friedman and Berger 1991 – three stress reduction
techniques on stress as a function of gender,
masculinity, and femininity include:
 Jogging,
relaxation training, and group interaction.
 Psychological
masculinity influences the effectiveness of the
stress reduction activities. Psychological femininity does not.

Perceived masculinity personality traits are highly
desirable for mental and physical well being in both
males and females.
THE ELITE ATHLETE: A PROFILE

Defined as athletes who are eligible for competition at the national,
international, or Olympic level, or who are professional sports
persons.

Early Sports Personality Research:

Williams 1980 – personality characteristics of successful athletes:

Women in individual sports were more dominant, aggressive, adventures,
sensitive, independent, self-sufficient, and introverted than women who engage
in team sports.

Female competitors tend to be assertive, dominant, self sufficient, received,
achievement orientated, and intelligent, and have an average to low
emotionality.
EARLY SPORTS PERSONALITY RESEARCH:

Reilly 1979 – Cattell 16 PF to assess soccer players and were found
to be stable, extroverted, tough minded, highly efficient, aggressive,
and dominant.

Paige 1973 – Football players are rough mindedness, extroverted,
self control, but even though they are extroverted he is not sure of
himself as his actions may indicate.

Kroll and Peterson 1965 – Difference between winning and losing
football teams. Main difference was that the winning teams were less
sportsmanlike. Concluded that personality was not an important
factor in football performance.
EARLY SPORTS PERSONALITY RESEARCH:

Bennett 1979 – Successful wrestlers scored higher on
measures of self confidence, perceiving their skills as
closer to their maximum potential, and on their ability to
focus attention on task related issues.

Morgan 1979 – (POMS) Profile of Mood States

Iceberg profile: Reflects the consequences of competition
among elite competitors rather than acting as an
antecedent or predictor on skilled performance.
Recent Advances in Sport Personality Research:

POMS was developed as a measure of mood for
psychiatric outpatients, specifically individuals
with mental illness who are about to be
discharged from the hospital.

An inventory that is not used with population for
which it was designed is invalid.

Generally highly skilled athletes score relatively
low in neuroticism, tension, depression, anger,
fatigue, and confusion.
Recent Advances in Sport Personality Research:

They tend to score high in self confidence, self
concept, self esteem,. Vigor, need achievement,
dominance, aggression, intelligence, self
sufficiency, mental toughness, independence,
sociability, creativity, stability, and extroversion.

Psychological profiles of elite athletes reveals a
person who is mentally healthy, physically and
psychologically mature, and committed to
excellence.
Recent Advances in Sport Personality Research:

Psychological Dispositions:

Purpose of this section is to review selected personal
characteristics of elite sports competitors.

The characteristics are depicted as styles or tendencies of
thinking and not personality traits.

Vanden Auweele 1993 – elite athletes possess more self
confidence, less anxiety, both prior to and during competition;
more effective techniques for managing anxiety; greater
concentration on task specific goals and movements; better
ability to cope with unexpectedly poor performance; and more
positive thought content.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISPOSITIONS:

Risk Taking:

Risk: defined in most dictionaries as a dangerous element or factor,
possibility of loss or injury, hazardous speculation, danger, or peril.

Malone’s (1985): Concludes that the athlete’s perception of danger
creates excitement and a desire to master the environment. However,
skilled competitors will rarely perform tasks for which they are not well
trained and physically fit.

These behaviors occur most often during situations that require solving
problems and making decisions.

Elite athletes will have a “go for it” attitude where a less skilled athlete
will tend to back off.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISPOSITIONS:

Stimulus Seeking:
 Or
sensation seeking: Athletes enjoy the challenge
presented in competitive sport
 Stimulus
seeking is a motivational factor to
participate in sport and to engage in risk taking
behaviors.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISPOSITIONS:
 Competitiveness:
 Sport
Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) to measure the
extent of this desire to win along three dimensions:
Competitiveness
 Win orientation
 Goal Orientation

COMPETITIVENESS CONTINUED…

Athletes score higher on all three dimensions with competitiveness
being the major discriminator.

Elite athletes did not score uniformly high on win orientation but were
more oriented toward the quality of their performance than toward
the contest’s outcome.

Measure their success by performing at their personal best rather
than by only winning or losing

Implications for coaches is that quality performance deserves at
least as much recognition as the contest’s outcome.
Psychological Dispositions:

Self confidence:

Self confidence (sport confidence) is one of the most important mental
states for success in sport competition.

It is the athlete’s belief about his/her ability to be successful in
performing a desired skill.

Feltz 1988 – defined self confidence as the “belief that one can
successfully execute a specific activity rather than a global trait that
accounts for overall optimism.

State Sport Confidence: is the belief or degree of certainty individuals
possess at one particular moment about their ability to be successful at
sport
SELF CONFIDENCE CONTINUED…….

Trait Sport Confidence: is depicted as their usual belief about their sport
success.

Maintaining high confidence is accompanied by positive emotions,
improved concentration, increased effort, lower susceptibility to mental
distractions, reduced muscular tension, improved ability to remember
and use game strategies, and more rapid and accurate decision making.

Coaches and the athletes must employ mental and behavioral strategies
that induce self confidence.

Self Efficiency: a concept associated with confidence, is a situational
specific form of self confidence the athlete’s convection to perform
successfully skills that are required to produce a certain desirable
outcome.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISPOSITIONS:

Attention to Style:

Nideffer 1979: defines attention to style as a predisposition to
attend to the environment in a certain personalized manner,
depicted internal, external, broad, or narrow.

Each person possesses a unique manner of attending to
environmental stimuli

Important issues in depicting elite performers are their ability to
shift attention as the situation demands and that their attentional
style is compatible with the types of skills they most often
perform.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISPOSITIONS:

Expectations for Success:
 One
reason for upsets in sports is that more
successful teams do not perceive their opponent as
threat to their success.
 Expectation
possible.
of success must be as high as
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISPOSITIONS:

Mental Toughness:

Dr. James Loehr (1982,1991,1994): Generated the term mental
toughness meaning to reach and sustain high performance – the
athletes ideal performance state – under pressure by expanding
capacity physically, mentally, and emotionally.

The belief in a mental toughness gene is very tempting because it
absolves the athlete of feeling responsible for failure.

This is self destructive thinking.

Mentally tough competitors are self motivated and self directed, positive
but realistic, in control of their emotions, calm and relaxed under fire,
highly energetic and ready for action, determined, mentally alert and
focused, dogged self confidence, and fully responsible.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISPOSITIONS:

Ability to Regulate Stress:

Terry Orlick (1986, 1990): claims that the ability t
remain cool under situations of tension and stress is
the true sign of a champion.

Key is not to eliminate stress but to regulate it by using
proper coping techniques

The ability t cope with failure is another trait of the
successful athlete
ABILITY TO REGULATE STRESS:

Coaches should be careful not to overreact to
an athlete’s mistakes.

Participant will be cautious in order to avoid
further mistakes, and risk taking will be the last
thing on his or her mind.

Better players learn from their mistakes then
put them out of their thoughts.
Behavioral Tendencies:

Pregame preparation can take the form of
superstitious behaviors.

Preevent and event behavioral tendencies: pg
41-43
Routines:

Routines are thoughts and behaviors that are
automatically integrated into our day.

Purposes: Reducing the amount of in depth thinking
that must be done, maintaining emotional control,
regulating our physical, mental, and emotional
performance preparation, both before and during
competition.

Rituals help athletes move from the cognitive stage to
the automatic stage of performing sport skills.
Routines:

Rituals help the competitor maintain self
control and concentration under conditions of
high duress and pressure.

Loehr 1990: Repetition of the right physical,
mental and emotional habits eventually brings
them under automatic control.
Routines:

The 16 Second Cure: Loehr’s 4 stage mental and
physical routine.

Stage 1: The Positive Physical Response
 Purpose
is to help the athlete maintain positive emotion, and
reduce the chance of anger, disappointment, and frustration.
 3-5
Seconds
 athlete
 Self
makes a quick decisive move (clap hands)
talk is “no problem, come on, nice shot”
THE 16 SECOND CURE: LOEHR’S 4 STAGE
MENTAL AND PHYSICAL ROUTINE.

Stage 2: The Relaxation Response

Allows athlete’s body to recover from physical and
emotional stress of the previous point

6-15 seconds

The more stressful the point the more time you take.

Think calming thoughts “settle down, relax”
THE 16 SECOND CURE: LOEHR’S 4 STAGE
MENTAL AND PHYSICAL ROUTINE.

Stage 3: The Preparation Response

Pre serve period for what the athlete intends to do
before the next serve.

Project confident and aggressive image

Self Talk: “ I have full confidence in winning the point”

Plan strategy
THE 16 SECOND CURE: LOEHR’S 4 STAGE
MENTAL AND PHYSICAL ROUTINE.

Stage 4: The Automatic Ritual Response

4 seconds

Deepen concentration and produces an instinctive, automatic form of
play.

This delay in serving reduces the tendency to rush the next serve under
pressure.

Avoid thoughts of technique and self talk

Serve should be mentally rehearsed

Same rituals should be repeated on second serve if first is missed.

Good for entering and maintaining their optimal
zone for concentration and attention focus.
Cognitive Strategies:


Cognitive and mental strategies are used to:

Improve the processing of information and enhance
learning and remembering

To affect ones emotions favorably
The Sport Psychologist (1990): athletes often lack
knowledge about the existence of mental skills
and how to apply them correctly.
Cognitive Strategies:

Pitfalls:
 Paralysis
by Analysis: Over prescribing cognitive
strategies (they may become distracted or less
coordinated in performing the task at hand.
Cognitive Strategies:

Three things to Remember:
 Mental
skills are skills and need to be learned
 Athletes
can be burdened by learning and using too
many skills
 Athletes
differ in their need to use certain types of
cognitive strategies
Cognitive Strategies:

Help athletes select and learn the strategies
that best meet their needs.

Cognitive Strategies used during contest: Table
2.1: pg 46 - 47
Cognitive Strategies:

Relaxation:

Is the reduction or complete absence of muscular
activity in the voluntary muscles.

Includes: progressive relaxation, autogenic training,
biofeedback. Imagery, centering, and hypnosis.

Relaxation is not always the proper response. Self talk
may be preferred

Used correctly it can be a valid and proven means of
preventing or reducing muscular tension and anxiety
while improving concentration and self confidence.
Cognitive Strategies:

Positive Self Talk:

Best way to maintain self confidence

Purpose: used to gain or to maintain self confidence,
focusing inwardly and thinking about ones strengths
and rather than about ones opponent can generate a
sense of self control and responsibility for a contest’s
outcome.

And to analysis the movement positively.
Cognitive Strategies:

Attentional Focus:

Now where and when to focus their attention

This allows them to exclude information that might slow
their responses or interfere with their sensations.

Do not focus on outcomes

Attention should be directed to the task at hand

Thinking about winning or losing within the event cause a
lack of focus on what you need to do in order to win.
Cognitive Strategies:

Arousal Regulation:
 Superior
athletes know 2 things about the process
of psychological arousal:
 Their
optimal level of arousal
 When
and how to begin the psyching techniques.
Cognitive Strategies:

Making Accurate Attributions:

Attributions consist of a persons attempts to explain the
causes of an event, specifically in response to a
performance outcome.

Athletes more often than not accurately explain the
causes of and tend to feel responsible for their
performance results.
Performance Expectations:

Muhammad Ali mental strategies 3 purposes:
 To
raise his expectations of success
 To lower the expectations of his opponent
 T eliminate or mask his fear

Essential quality of a champion is that they are
positive
Performance Expectations:

Denis Waitley “The Psychology of Winning”
1978: Six attitude qualities:
 Positive
Self Expectancy
 Overall
 Gets
 Self
attitude of personal optimism and enthusiasm
what he/she expects
talk is “I was good today; I’ll be better tomorrow”
DENIS WAITLEY “THE PSYCHOLOGY OF
WINNING” 1978: SIX ATTITUDE QUALITIES:

Positive Self Image

We cannot do what our self image does not allow us to
do.

Self talk is “I can see myself growing, achieving,
improving, and winning.

Waitley – “it’s not who individuals are that holds them
back, but who they think they are not.
DENIS WAITLEY “THE PSYCHOLOGY OF
WINNING” 1978: SIX ATTITUDE QUALITIES:

Positive Self Control
 Taking
control of the events in one’s life is
characteristic of winners
DENIS WAITLEY “THE PSYCHOLOGY OF
WINNING” 1978: SIX ATTITUDE QUALITIES:

Positive Self Esteem

Winners are inner directed

They tend to choode modes who exemplify the high goals
and acheivments to which they aspire.

Winners are secure enough as individuals and as athletes to
respect themselves as well as their peers and opponents.

Losers are far less secure and need to criticize and
undermine others.
DENIS WAITLEY “THE PSYCHOLOGY OF
WINNING” 1978: SIX ATTITUDE QUALITIES:

Positive Self Direction

Winners have an action plan to turn fantasy into fact.

Game plan for life, called the power of purpose

It is comprised of knowing what they want to accomplish on a day to day
basis

Having a purpose for life allows us to survive and to feel fulfilled.

Self direction is about finding your purpose, your contributions to life to
feel satisfied
DENIS WAITLEY “THE PSYCHOLOGY OF
WINNING” 1978: SIX ATTITUDE QUALITIES:

Positive Self Awareness

Cratty 1984 - Most superior athletes prefer to know all
they can about themselves

Winners know who they are and their potential both as
individuals and as athletes

The have learned to ask for and to accept the feedback
and judgments’ of others

Winners say “I know who I am and where I am going
PEAK PERFORMANCE: A STATE OF ALTERED
CONSCIOUSNESS

Athlete’s mental state just prior and during peak experiences is
characterized by complete absorption in the task at hand

This allows for the proper internal attentional focus

Quicker and clearer focus on movement cues results in faster
reaction time and movement in a controlled skillful manner

A person’s peak performance does not necessarily exceed that of
other persons, but rather surpasses what could be anticipated for
that individual in a particular situation.
PEAK PERFORMANCE: A STATE OF ALTERED
CONSCIOUSNESS

Describes peak experiences as being temporary, non
voluntary, and unique.

There is an absence of thinking during the skill execution.

Emotionally, peak performers report an extremely fulfilling
and happy psycho emotional state

Focused Attention and feelings of confidence were the most
apparent mental states are associated with peak
performance.
PEAK PERFORMANCE: A STATE OF ALTERED
CONSCIOUSNESS
 Being
in the flow the experience of performing in an
emotional high
 Athlete’s
are in the state of flow when they are
totally involved in an activity and experience a
number of positive feelings, including freedom from
self consciousness and great enjoyment of the
process
PEAK PERFORMANCE: A STATE OF ALTERED
CONSCIOUSNESS

Cratty 1984 – classified flow states into 4
categories:

Anxiety or arousal

Extremely Good Feelings
 Positive
in performance phenomenon in which a well prepared
athlete develops very positive feeling during most of the period
of the competitive period
CRATTY 1984 – CLASSIFIED FLOW STATES INTO
4 CATEGORIES:


Mental Escaping

Runner high

Performers can dissociate themselves from the physical demands, even
pain, of prolonged, arduous physical activity.

Mentally floating
Postcontest mental break

The need to recuperate from the physical and psychological demands
“buzzing out” or “coming down” period.
PEAK PERFORMANCE: A STATE OF ALTERED
CONSCIOUSNESS
 Garfield
and Bennett (1984): asserts that the most
important factor for experiencing peak performance
is “ letting go”.
 Figure
2.3: The flow state scale pg. 52 and Cues of
Peak Performance Feelings pg. 53
FLOW STATE SCALE BY JACKSON AND MARSH
(1996): STUDIES IDENTIFY NINE COMPONENTS
OF FLOW

Challenge Skill Balance: My abilities matched the high
challenge of the situation)

Action Awareness Merging: things just seemed to be happing
automatically)

Clear Goals: I knew clearly what I wanted to do

Concentration at the task at Hand: My attention was focused
clearly on what I was doing
FLOW STATE SCALE BY JACKSON AND MARSH
(1996): STUDIES IDENTIFY NINE COMPONENTS
OF FLOW

Sense of Control: I was not concerned on how I was presenting
myself

Loss of self –consciousness: I performed automatically

Transformation of time: at times it was if things were happening in
slow motion

Autotelic experience: the experience left me feeling great

Flow state scale should be used immediately after performance in
order to ensure accurate and immediate feeling.
Preparing an Athlete for Peak Performance:
Routines that are conducted on the day of, and
immediately before, the event also help athletes
regulate their stress, anxiety and arousal levels
 One method: is to use a checklist that list all of the
required behavioral and cognitive strategies to be
performed at some point, usually within one week
of the competition
 Mental Game Checklist: Figure 2.4 pg. 55
 This review process sets in motion a self
expectation that each point is necessary for
success and therefore will be followed.

Preparing an Athlete for Peak Performance:

Finally, the list should be reviewed at some convenient time after the
event to determine which aspects could be improved before the next
competition. Each item is worded so that higher scores are more
desirable.

The athlete is invited to add his/her own items is viewed desirable
and a natural part of the athlete’s routine during a particular time
period from week to week

Having a desirable attitude or emotional intensity (anxiety or
aggression), or engaging in a specific action (intake of food/drink, or
taking a walk)

Purpose is to ensure that an athlete current score is as high as or
better than the previous scores.
Anxiety about Failure and Success:

Ronald Smith (1984): most common sources of
anxiety in athletes are fears of failure and resulting
social disapproval or rejection.
Fear of Failure (FOF): or motive to avoid failure

Defined by Atkinson (1966) as a disposition to avoid failure
and/or a capacity for experiencing shame or humiliation as a
consequence of failure

Failure provokes fear

FOF will be high for athletes whose self esteem is firmly
entrenched in successful sport performance or successful
outcomes while for others whose self esteem is derived from
multiple sources (fitness and health, family, social
relationships, academic success, religion), FOF in sport context
will be reduced.

Fearing failure is one primary cause of competitive trait anxiety.
Recommendations for coaches and parents to
help prevent or reduce FOF in the athlete:

Regardless of the outcomes be supportive of the individual’s
attempts to perform at his/her best.

Emphasize better effort and avoid informing an athlete that
losing was due to low ability. Persistent feelings of low
competence bring on a sense of helplessness, depression, and
low self esteem.

Define success and failure broadly. Even in a loss the team did
something right.

Have reasonably high expectations of the athletes performance
Look for signs of FOF. Include:

Chronic complaining (excuse for anticipated
failure)

Excessive Talking/ Continued Boasting (cover
up for anxiety)

Inability to sit still (display of nervous energy)

Crying (stress release mechanism)
Look for signs of FOF. Include:

Frequent absenteeism from practices and
games (If I don’t try I won’t fail)

A quick temper (a sign of considerable fear and
insecurity)

Frequent Injury or abnormal recovery time from
an injury

Tendency to avoid taking risks

Avoid asking the athlete about his/her
emotions (tends to invite stress. The athlete
thinks that the coach expects these type of
thoughts or further direct the athlete’s
attention toward such feelings
Fear of Success (FOS):

9 syndromes that may explain the source of
antecedents of FOS:
 Athletes
fear of social and emotional isolation that
accompanies success (ostracism)
 Athlete’s
 Athletes
guilt from self assertion in competition
protect themselves from competition
because they fear discovering their true potential:
fears of succeeding are derived from fearing failure
9 SYNDROMES THAT MAY EXPLAIN THE SOURCE
OF ANTECEDENTS OF FOS:
 Athlete’s
may feel anxiety about surpassing a
previous record by an admired performer
 Dealing
with the pressure to constantly match or
exceed one’s previous best performance: This
explanation is the most valid. Trying to live up to the
fans and Medias expectations can be to
demanding.
9 SYNDROMES THAT MAY EXPLAIN THE SOURCE
OF ANTECEDENTS OF FOS:
 Cratty
(1983): the individuals involved simply were
afraid of being the best, thus creating a situation in
which others would direct their energies toward
defeating them. There is also the fear that by
winning they lose support because fans will cheer
the underdog.
 Some
athletes are fearful of living up to the
expectation of others after they have demonstrated
competent performance
9 SYNDROMES THAT MAY EXPLAIN THE SOURCE
OF ANTECEDENTS OF FOS:

Too much pressure to maintain high standards
and are unable to deal with criticism from
others.

Silva (1982): men athletes had less FOS than
female athletes

It is the drive to succeed that truly separates
winners.
CHOKING:

Defined as reduced performance quality under
pressure circumstances; the inability to
perform up to previously exhibited standards.

Baumeister (1984): 2 Factors that Causes
Choking
 High
pressure to succeed
 Heightened state of self consciousness
CHOKING:

Subjects with low SC dispositions placed in self conscious
situations brought on by the expectations of the observers cope
least well under pressure

Highly self – conscious persons would actually be less likely to
choke than persons who are habitually less self conscious.

Choking is greater among those habitually low in self
consciousness – who are less accustomed to dealing with high
pressure conditions confirms that the athlete’s inability to cope
with the pressure, that is, to choke, may be partly created be
an evaluative (highly expectancy) audience.
HOW SPECTATORS AFFECT AN ATHLETE’S
PERFORMANCE:

Contends that one of our greatest needs on our way to
self actualization is the need for recognition from
others.

Elite athletes are not only comfortable with being
observed by others, they prefer it.

Swartz and Barsky (1977): concluded that the home
team won only 53 to 64 percent of the time. During
the playoffs home team lost more pressure home
games in basketball and baseball
HOW SPECTATORS AFFECT AN ATHLETE’S
PERFORMANCE:

Courneya and Carron (1992): Explanations for better
performance at the home arena might include higher
arousal and aggression levels by the home team.

Zajonc (1965): Social Facilitation (effect of an
audience on sport performance)

Critical factor that decides whether an audience will
improve or inhibit performance is whether the
performer’s dominant response is correct or incorrect.
THREE FACTORS DECIDES THE CORRECTNESS
OF A RESPONSE
Task difficulty
 The person’s skill level
 The type of audience (those who the athlete
believes are qualified might inhibit
performance if the task is complex for the
athlete)


An evaluative audience may improve performance if
the individual finds the task simple.

Simple tasks are not performed well while responses
to complex tasks tend to improve measurably when
athlete performs in front of a passive audience where
they do not feel threatened.

The degree to which an athlete perceives and reacts
to the makeup of an audience is referred to as its
Evaluative Potential

Evaluative Apprehension: If evaluative potential hurts
performance.

Less complex skills are better performed in the
presence of an evaluative audience than with
passive observers.

More difficult tasks are likely to be better
performed in the presence of passive
observers than evaluators.
WHAT CAN ATHLETES AND COACHES DO ABOUT
APPREHENSION?
 Focus
their attention on the task at hand
 Athlete
who is learning a complex skill should
practice until the skill is mastered before
performing it in a competitive setting.
 Ignore

the crown and focus on the task at hand
The effect of the audience can predict
performance only 3% of the time
COPING WITH STRESS:

Have the ability to quickly recover from, or
ignore, less pleasant aspects of competitive
sports.

Winners are capable of redirecting their
energies in a productive manner.

Failure to quickly adapt to unpleasant
experiences often result in poor performance.
COPING WITH STRESS:

Krohn and Hindel (1988): found that vigilant coping
strategies (focusing on threatening information) are
more harmful to the athlete’s emotional and
performance responses to acute stress than
“cognitive avoidance strategies” (avoiding threat
relevant information)
Coping with Competitive Situations:

Top Competitors Cope with stress by:


Plan each aspect of their performance
Have at least one alternative behavior for every planned
action.

Quality players calmly plan and correctly execute changes in
strategy in response to an opponent who is experiencing
success.

Orlick (1980): the best way to prevent panic situations and
anxiety is to begin thinking about and implementing solutions
before problems get out of hand.
Coping with Pain:

Why some players can cope with sports related
pain better than others.

Ryan (1976):
 No
difference in the pain threshold of the three
groups
 Differences
were noted in pain tolerance in which
contact sport athlete’s tolerated the most pain.
4 steps in Coping with the Onset of Pain:

They Use Cognitive Strategies: Developing self
statements and mental imagery to handle it.

They Confront and Handle the Pain: Self
statements such as “you will get through this”
or “Ignore my body, and concentrate on the
opponent”.
4 steps in Coping with the Onset of Pain:

Elite Athletes Cope with Pain at Critical Moments:
Focus on their injuries only between plays, but will
ignore injuries when executing movements on the field
or when concentrating on opponents.

They use Reinforcement Self Statements: When the
stressful activity ceases, they assess the coping
strategy by asking “Was it better to keep my feelings
inside? Should I tell others of my discomfort? Ect…

Elite athletes tend to use one of two mental
techniques in coping with physical discomfort,
Association and Dissociation.
 Association:
Is to be “in touch” with ones body and
to maintain the necessary effort and motivation to
meet challenges and personal goals. Demands
internal focus. It can backfire due to a mis-focusing
of their attention.
 One
reason injured athletes do not return is that their
attention is incorrectly aimed toward the injured area
rather than on environment factors.

Dissociation: entails being mentally
preoccupied with external events as opposed to
internal feeling and sensations. Attention
externally on the musical input and away from
the physical responses to vigorous exercise.
Coping with Sports Related Stress:

Chronic stress communication problems with coaches
or other team members, low team member
satisfaction, chronic injury or pain, and prolonged poor
performance (slumping).

Coping is usually defined as “conscious psychological
and physical efforts to improve one’s resourcfulness
in dealing with stressful events… or to reduce external
demands”. (Anshel et al. 2001)
Two important characteristics of coping:

Coping is a conscious and effortful process the athlete
is aware of the stressors and uses strategies to
manage the demands or enhance internal resources.
Coping is a learned skill and is not a personality trait.

It is not necessarily performed effectively. Coping can
be adaptive (effective in reducing perceived stress) or
maladaptive (have ineffective properties) in reducing
the stressor’s intensity. (Smoking, Drugs, ect..)

Before suggesting ways to deal with stress it is
important to separate the athletes coping style
form the use of coping strategies.

Coping Style: is a disposition that refers to the
athlete’s preference, or tendency, to use a
certain category of coping strategy following
chronic or acute forms of stress.
 Examples
are:
 Approach
and avoidance
 Attention and distraction
 Monitoring and blunting
 Problem focused and emotion focused

Coping Strategies: are state and situational
measures consisting of the athlete’s use of one
or more cognitive or behavioral methods of
overcoming chronic or acute stress.
 Examples:
 Seeking
information
 Thinking about and trying to resolve the issue.
 Seeing social support
 Discounting the source of the stressor

Consistent use of a certain coping strategy
would reflect the individuals coping style.

One important implication for identifying a
athlete’s coping style is to assist coaches and
sport psychologist in teaching coping strategies
to athletes that are compatible with their style
of coping.
COPING INTERVENTIONS:

Use techniques to handle stress both during
and between contests.

Chronic Stress Programs are implemented
between and immediately preceding
competitive events.
COPING INTERVENTIONS:

They include:

Gauron’s (1986): Cognitive Self Regulation Program based on the
athlete’s ability to control attitudes, perceptions, thoughts, and internal
dialog.

Meichenbaum’s (1985) Stress Inoculation Training: Focuses on
stratefies to circumvent the unpleasant effects of stress

COPE model (Anshell 1990): describes cognitive behavioral strategies to
handle acute forms of stress caused mainly by negative input from
others,
primarily coaches.
COPE MODEL (ANSHELL 1990):

C – Control Emotions:
 Immediate
Reaction upon exposure to hostile input
(Fight or Flight Reflex)
 Model
requires taking a few deep breaths and
regain composure
 Athlete’s
can remain aware of and receptive to any
important information that will contribute to better
subsequent performance.
COPE MODEL (ANSHELL 1990):

O – Organize Input:
 Objective
here is for the athlete to deal rationally
with the stressful episode.
 Know
the difference between important and
unimportant information.
 John
Feinstein (1986) “A Season on the Brink”
Bobby Knight and his players reaction to him.
O – ORGANIZE INPUT CONTINUED

Organizing input is to integrate all of it and then decide what
has validity and what does not refers to this technique as
language discrimination.

Hear all of it and then develop skills to integrate what is
desirable and try to forget undesirable input quickly.

Best way to do this is:


Stop thinking about the stressful episode at least
temporarily.
Quickly refocus on environmental task demands
COPE MODEL (ANSHELL 1990):

P – Plan Response:
 Performer
must quickly begin to plan upcoming
actins based on recent feedback and experiences.
 Acknowledge
strengths, strategies or tendencies of
the opponent or concentrate on correcting his/her
own performance.
 Thoughts
using it.
must go from integrating information to
COPE MODEL (ANSHELL 1990):

E – Execute:
 Athlete
who has been intimidated or upset by
others negative remarks will hesitate, take fewer
risks, and lack self confidence in subsequent
performances
 Objective
at this stage is to execute purposeful
movements with the appropriate level of
assertiveness, arousal, and concentration.
E – EXECUTE:

Cognitive techniques that help athletes
overcome sudden and chronic stress:
 Discounting:
is a mental strategy athletes use to
reduce the importance of undesirable messages or
experiences. It helps organize information as
meaningful and non-meaningful.
PSYCHOLOGY OF DRUG ABUSE:






Goal of Recreational drug user is often altering his/her
psychological state.
Creatine Increases muscular Power and speed in sport
events.
Athletes were asked to respond to their impression and
perceptions of drug taking on their team r among players
they know.
Males took performance drugs to be competitive more than
any other reason.
The most common reason for taking recreational drugs was
to reduce tension and anxiety.
Drug taking is primarily a function of coping with the
pressures t succeed in sport
QUESTIONS AND COMMENTS