Transcript Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Chapter 6: Memory Processes
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Memory Processes
Encoding Storage Retrieval
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Encoding Processes
• • • Creating an acoustic code – What it sounds like Creating a semantic code – What it means Creating a visual code – What it looks like
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Encoding Types and STM
• • Type of code may rely on type of task STM refers to memory that is held • temporarily Evidence exists for a variety of encoding types in STM
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Evidence for Acoustic Encoding in STM
• Conrad (1964) – Visually present a series of letters briefly – Immediately write the letters viewed once series is complete (Try it - Starts on next click)
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Conrad (1964)
• • • •
You Viewed B C F M N P N S T V What errors did you make? – F for S – B for V – P for B Not visual errors (e.g., E for F, O for Q, R for P) Thus, items acoustically even though stimuli were presented visually
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Shulman (1970)
• • •
Evidence for semantic encoding in STM Participants viewed 10-word lists Given a recognition test using visually represented "probe words" which were either: – Homonyms - e.g. "bawl" for "ball" – Synonyms - e.g. "talk" for "speak" or – Identical to the original word
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Shulman (1970) Results
•
The Homonym and Synonym probes produced similar error rates - suggesting that an equal amount of acoustic and
semantic
processing must be taking place – Homonyms - e.g. "bawl" for "ball" – Synonyms - e.g. "talk" for "speak" – Identical to the original word
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Posner & Keele (1967)
• Evidence for visual encoding in STM – Letter matching task – Two letters separated by brief interval – Participant had to indicate if same letter • • • A-a Yes A-A Yes A-M No – Measure reaction time
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Posner & Keele (1967) Results
•
If letters were the same visually (a-a) participants were faster than if the letters were not the same visually (A-a)
•
Results indicate that visual code was also present for STM
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Encoding Types & LTM
• • Type of code may rely on type of task LTM refers to memory that may be • held permanently Evidence exists for a variety of encoding types for LTM
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Semantic Encoding in LTM
• Grossman & Eagle (1970) – Study 41 different words – Given recognition test after delay – 9 of the distractors were semantically related to words on list – 9 of the distractors were not – False alarms for each type: 1.83 of synonyms, but only 1.05 of unrelated
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Visual Encoding in LTM
•
Frost (1972) – Participants studied 16 drawings – Manipulated visual orientation and semantic category – After a delay, participants were asked if they had studied an object with the same name as the test object – Reaction time was measured – Participants responded faster to identical drawings than drawings in a different orientation – This result indicates visual encoding occurred
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
• •
Acoustic Encoding in LTM
• Evidence of very long-term memory for songs Rubin (1977) Participants recall more of the text when provided with the melody of a well-learned song ("Star Spangled Banner") than when given no cue
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Transfer from STM to LTM
• Consolidation – Integrating new information into stored information • Disruption of consolidation is studied in amnesiacs – ECT patients (Squire)
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Metamemory
• • • • Knowing what you know Knowing how your memory works Being able to assess your own memory Young children lack metamemory skills
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Principles to Strengthen Memory
• • Elaborative rehearsal is better than maintenance rehearsal Distributed practice is better than massed practice – “Spacing effect” • Organizing information enhances memory
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
What causes the spacing effect?
• Multiple encoding contexts theory – Multiple study sessions lead to multiple types of encoding, thus more possibility of matching during test conditions • REM Theory – The more REM sessions following study sessions, the more consolidation that occurs
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
• • • • • • •
Mnemonic Devices to Aid Memory
Categorical clustering Interactive images Pegword system Method of loci Acronyms Acrostics Keyword system
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Which Mnemonic is the Best?
•
Roediger (1980) [Insert Table 6.2]
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Prospective Memory
• The ability to remember a future intention – Buying bread on your way home from work – Going to the dentist on Wednesday • Retrospective memory is memory of the past
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Retrieval Processes
• • • •
Getting information back out Multiple processes can be used to enhance retrieval Different strategies are used for short term storage and long term storage Matching the type of processes done during encoding with the type of processes done at retrieval increases success
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Retrieval from STM
•
Is the search serial or parallel?
– Serial indicates one by one search – Parallel means all items are processed at once
•
Is the search exhaustive or self-terminating?
– Exhaustive indicates that all items in the set are examined – Self-terminating means that after target is found the search stops
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Studying Searching in STM
• • • • •
Saul Sternberg (1967) Memorize a set of numbers (6,3,8,2,7) Shown a probe digit Participant must indicate if the probe was in the set Time to respond is measured
2
6,5,8,2,7 Yes
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Sternberg (1967)
• 3 critical factors manipulated – How many items were in the set the participants had to memorize – Whether the probe was in the list – The probe’s location in the set
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Sternberg (1967)
• Possible Result Patterns – A represents parallel processing – B illustrates serial processing – C illustrates exhaustive serial processing – D illustrates self terminating serial processing
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Sternberg’s Conclusion
• •
A serial exhaustive model But….
– Corcoran (1971) proposed that a parallel model could also explain the pattern found – Townsend (1971) stated it was mathematically impossible to distinguish parallel from serial – Thus, both models still exist
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Retrieval from LTM
• The types of cues you use to retrieve may affect what you can retrieve… – Free recall vs Categorized recall – Study random list or an organized list • What is the impact on memory?
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Bower, Clark, Lesgold, and Winzenz
Naples World
(1969)
Randomized list
Italy Americas Montreal Bristol Washington Ottowa Orlando Liverpool England Winnipeg Europe Rome Dallas USA London Florence Canada
Organized list
World Europe England Italy Americas USA London Liverpool Bristol Rome Florence Naples Washington Dallas Orlando Canada Ottowa Montreal Winnipeg
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Bower & Associates (1969)
• Participants remembered 65% of the organized list, only 19% of the random • list Thus, Organization helps memory retrieval
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Chechile (2004)
• Manipulated time to retrieve and probablility of retrieval – Little time, fewer words recalled – More time, more words recalled
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
If You Cannot Retrieve from LTM…
• Has the memory disappeared? • Is the memory available but not accessible?
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Evidence Supporting “Still There” Theory Nelson (1971)
Paired associate List 43-house 67-dog 38-dress 77-sissors Two week delay Subjects recalled 75% of items on list Cued recall test 43- ________ 67- ________ But focus was on 25% they forgot.
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Nelson (1971) Critical Manipulation
If participants forgot “38-dress” and “77-sissors” then participants relearned either
same
pairs or
changed
pairs Same Changed 25% “forgotten” Relearned 38-dress 38-dress 77-sissors 77-sissors Results 78% 38-dress 38-apple 77-sissors 77-kettle 43% The better performance of participants in the same condition indicate that there was some memory left for “forgotten” items. Otherwise both groups would remember the same amount.
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Theories about Forgetting
• Decay theory – Memory is weakened with disuse – Simply passage of time… • Interference theory – Proactive: old memories interfere with recall of new information – Retroactive: new memories interfere with recall of old information
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Interference versus Decay in STM
• Brown-Peterson Paradigm – Participants were given 3 consonants to try to remember (e.g., FRL) – Participants were then given a 3 digit number (294) & asked to count backwards by threes (e.g., 291, 288, 285) – After varying delays (3-18 seconds) participants were asked to recall the 3 letters
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Brown-Peterson results (1959)
Trigrams were forgotten by 18 seconds due to retroactive interference of counting backwards
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Proactive Interference in STM
• Keppel & Underwood (1962) – Replicated the Peterson & Peterson Task varying the time delay to recall – Analysis was done by trial number (1st trial, 2nd trial, 3rd trial, etc.) – Found support for proactive interference
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Retroactive Interference from LTM
Experimental group Learn List A Control group Learn List A Learn List B ----------- Delay Test for Memory A Delay Test for Memory A The experimental group will remember less material from the tested list A compared to the control group Information learned afterwards interferes with retrieval of List A.
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Proactive Interference from LTM
Experimental group Learn List A Control group No study Learn List B Delay Learn List B Delay Test for Memory B Test for Memory B The experimental group remembers less material from the tested list B than the control group Information previously learned (list A) interferes with retrieval of List B
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Let’s Test Your LTM!
•
You will see several words, one at a time
•
Do whatever you can to try and remember as many of the words as you can
•
At the end of the list, try to recall as many words as you can
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
BED
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
CLOCK
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
DREAM
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
NIGHT
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
TURN
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
MATTRESS
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
SNOOZE
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
NOD
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
TIRED
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
NIGHT
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
ARTICHOKE
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
INSOMNIA
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
REST
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
TOSS
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
NIGHT
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
ALARM
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
NAP
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
SNORE
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
PILLOW
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Write down the words you saw
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Here are the words in the order viewed
BED CLOCK DREAM NIGHT TURN MATTRESS SNOOZE NOD TIRED NIGHT ARTICHOKE INSOMNIA REST TOSS NIGHT ALARM NAP SNORE PILLOW Did you recall?
Explanation Bed? Clock?
Primacy Effect Snore? Pillow? Recency Effect Night?
Artichoke?
Toss? Toss & Turn?
Sleep?
Spacing Effect Distinctiveness Clustering False Memory
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Serial Position Curve
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Autobiographical Memory
• • Memory of personal history Constructive in nature
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Constructive Nature of LTM
• Bartlett (1932) was the first to demonstrate distortions for prose – Read stories about Native Americans – Subjects were good at recalling “gist” information – Omission of detail was systematic • Tended to omit information that did not make sense to the participants
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
•
Constructive Nature of LTM
• Prior experience influences how we recall information Having retrieval cues can help us recall more information, but cues can also lead to errors
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Owens, Bower and Black (1979)
Nancy arrived at the cocktail party. She looked around the room to see who was there. She went to talk with her professor. She felt she had to talk to him but was a little nervous about just what to say. A group of people started to play charades. Nancy went over and had some refreshments. The hors d’oevres were good but she was interested in talking to the rest of the people at the party. After a while, she decided she’d had enough and left the party.
Some participants also heard that passage, but w/ this theme:
Nancy woke up feeling sick and she wondered if she really were pregnant. How could she tell the professor she had been seeing? And the money was another problem.
Participants were then asked to recall as much about the story as they could
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Owens, Bower and Black (1979) Results
Studied Propositions Inferred Propositions Theme 29.2
15.2
No Theme 20.3
3.7
The “theme” offered some background information and some retrieval cues, which increased recall. However, the background info also led to more
intrusions
(memory for information not present), such as “The professor got Nancy pregnant.”
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
• •
Memory Distortion
• Simply recalling may distort your memory Simple suggestion may distort your memory Memory is constructive in nature
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Schacter’s “Seven Sins of Memory”
1. Memories are transient (fade with time) 2. We do not remember what we do not pay attention to 3. Our memories can be temporarily blocked 4. We can misattribute the source of memory 5. We are suggestible in our memories 6. We can show memory distortion (bias) 7. We often fail to forget the things we would like not to recall (persistence of memory)
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Eyewitness memory
• The single greatest cause of wrongful convictions nationwide, playing a role in more than 75% of convictions • overturned through DNA testing.
http://www.innocenceproject.org/
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
• •
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
• Participants were all shown the same video of an accident between two cars Some subjects asked: “How fast were the cars going when they
smashed
each other?” into Others were asked: “How fast were the cars going when they
hit
each other?”
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
“How fast were the cars going when they ________ into each other?” Word Used Smashed Collided Bumped Hit Contacted Average Speed Estimated 41 m.p.h.
39 m.p.h.
38 m.p.h.
34 m.p.h.
32 m.p.h.
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Problems with Lineups
• Assumption that perpetrator is in • • lineup Distractor selection is also important Police behavior may also influence
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Children’s Eyewitness Memory
• • • Be wary of repeated questioning Leading questions may distort memory Younger children are more suggestible
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
•
False Memories / Memory Illusions
Roediger & McDermott (1995) – Present a list of associated words, missing one “target” word (e.g., tired, bed, night, dream, etc., but not SLEEP) – With immediate recall, participants tend to recall the non-presented target item – More importantly, when asked whether they “remember” or “know” the word was on the list, they report an actual memory for the item
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
False Memory cont’d
•
Garry, Manning, Loftus & Sherman (1996) – Participants complete Life Events Inventory (LEI) – Then are led through imagination exercises – Fill out LEI again
•
The results show that when participants imagine events that they said did
not
happen to them, they are more likely to say they
did
happen to them
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Repressed or Recovered Memories
•
of Abuse
A person remembers now that 20 years ago, someone sexually abused them
•
Traumatic memory was previously repressed, but was recovered (often) under hypnosis in therapy
• •
Validity of recovered memories?
Empirical evidence for Freudian repression?
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Can Painful Abuse Memories be Repressed?
• Skeptics argue that repression (or in some cases dissociation) of sexual memories is a • concept without any scientific merit If repression does not exist, there can be no such thing as a recovered repressed memory; rather, a recovered memory of abuse can only be a false memory of abuse
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
False Memory vs. Repressed Memory Issue
• Evidence for suggested false memory is not automatically evidence against repressed-recovered memories, and vise versa
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
No Consensus on the Issue
• Results vary dependent upon characteristics sample (volunteers, children, child services, adult recall, etc.) – Some abuse memories are not traumatic, and thus are presumably not repressed, rather they may be forgotten, like any memory • • Post-traumatic stress syndrome may also occur – One symptom is recurrent, intrusive thoughts about the traumatic incident—this is the opposite of repression Some may handle memory of sexual abuse by blocking out of mind either by repression or dissociation
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Flashbulb Memories
• • Some researchers propose that events that are particularly surprising or arousing will yield flashbulb memories Where were you when the… – Challenger explosion occurred?
– OJ verdict was read?
– JFK was assassinated?
– Bombing of the twin towers?
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Flashbulb Memories
• Some research proposes good memory for – Place where you learned of information – What you were doing when you heard it – Where you heard the information from – Emotions in self and others – The aftermath
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Emotion and Memory
• • There is a strong relationship (.90) between the emotionality and vividness of memory – This does not mean that the memory is accurate Emotional events seem to be less resistant to forgetting over time… – Perhaps they are perceived better – Perhaps we think about them more
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Flashbulb Memory Results
Neisser and Harsch (1992) – Tested immediate memory for Shuttle Explosion, and then tested it again 3 years later – There was little agreement with the two “memories” despite the confidence of the participants
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Encoding Specificity
• Memory is improved when information available at encoding is also available at retrieval
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Amabile & Rovee-Collier (1991)
• • The match between encoding and test for babies is very important 3 & 6 month old infants were taught in crib with a particular bumper background to kick to move the mobile
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Amabile & Rovee-Collier (1991)
• • Infants kicked more strongly in the same context However, you can teach infants in multiple contexts to weaken the encoding specificity
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Encoding Specificity Tulving & Thompson (1973)
1 st Study list: Learn target words in capital letters
Cue
head
Target
LIGHT grasp BABY 2 nd Free association: Generate 6 words for each word presented
Word
dark infant
Possible Generations
light, black, room….
sleeping, bottle, baby….
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
3 rd Recognition Test: Circle any generated words that were in the study list in capital letters
Word
dark infant
Possible Generations
light, black, room….
sleeping, bottle, baby….
4th Recall: Recall the words from the study list in capital letters, using these cues that they were studied with
Word Possible Generations
grasp ________ head ________
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Tulving & Thompson (1973) Results
100 They recalled more than they recognized!
50 0 Free Association Recognition test Study List Recall test
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Encoding Specificity
• Tulving (1983) – People encode the context with the target material • • • Physical match (class, diving, smell) Emotional match (happy, depressed) Understanding match (childhood amnesia, under the influence of drugs match)
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
•
Memory Development--Kail
• Asked participants aged 6 to 21 to do mental addition to a memory search Found age-related increases in the amount of information that could be • held in memory Is it the capacity that increases or the ability to use the capacity?
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Kail & Hall (1999)
•
12 boys and 12 girls at ages 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 years
•
Given simple addition and subtraction word problems – “Nancy has 6 marbles. Eve has 3 marbles. How many marbles does Nancy need to give away to have as many as Eve?”
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Results
• Both domain-specific and general information-processing skills contribute to children's success on • word problems Thus, older children holding larger and more complex bits of information
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Metamemory Knowledge in Children
• Young children – Underuse strategies – Have little connection between memory awareness and memory strategies – Less likely to spontaneously use memory strategies
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Appel, Cooper, McCarrell, SimsKnight, Yussen & Flavell (1972)
• • • •
Preschoolers (4 yrs old), First Graders (7 yrs old) and fifth graders (11 yrs old) Given either a “Look” or a “Remember” task 9-15 Pictures of vehicles, clothes, food were displayed Children were observed to see if they showed any behaviors indicating a memory strategy during the “look and memory” task
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
•
Appel et al. Results
• If told to “look”, no one used a memory strategy If told to “remember”, older children used a strategy to help, preschoolers • did not Older children remembered more
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Cognitive Monitoring
• What you know and what you do not know – Flavell, Friedrichs & Hoyt (1970) – Preschool and elementary children asked to study a set of items until they were sure they could recall them perfectly… – When tested, elementary children could recall pretty well, the preschool children could not.
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg Chapter 6
Memory in Adulthood
• Cohen (1992) – Older university students received better coursework grades than younger students – However, if timed recall was required, they did less well.
– Most age decline can be compensated for by expertise