Lecture 8: Nervous System
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Transcript Lecture 8: Nervous System
I.
Overview
II.
Histology
III. Electrical Signals
IV. Signal Transmission at
Synapses
V.
Neurotransmitters
Nervous
System
VI. Neural Circuits
VII. Repairs
VIII.Pathology
1
I.
Overview
1.
Structures
2.
Functions
3.
Organization
II.
Histology
III.
Electrical Signals
IV.
Signal Transmission at
Synapses
V.
Neurotransmitters
VI.
Neural Circuits
VII.
Repairs
VIII. Pathology
Nervous
System
2
Nervous Tissue
Controls and integrates
all body activities within
limits that maintain life
Three basic functions
1. sensing changes with
sensory receptors
2. interpreting and
remembering those
changes
3. reacting to those
changes with effectors
3
Major Structures of the Nervous System
Brain
spinal cord
cranial nerves
spinal nerves
ganglia
enteric plexuses
sensory receptors
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Subdivisions of the PNS
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
a) Somatic (voluntary) nervous system (SNS)
b) Autonomic (involuntary) nervous systems (ANS)
c) Enteric nervous system (ENS)
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Organization
Sensory
Integration
SNS
(Motor)
SNS
(Sensory)
ANS
(Sensory)
Motor
Brain
Spinal
cord
ANS
(Motor)
ENS
(Sensory)
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I.
Overview
II.
Histology
1.
Neurons
2.
Neuroglia
a)
CNS
b)
PNS
3.
Myelination
4.
Gray and White Matter
III.
Electrical Signals
IV.
Signal Transmission at Synapses
V.
Neurotransmitters
VI.
Neural Circuits
VII.
Repairs
VIII.
Pathology
Nervous
System
8
Neurons
Functional unit of nervous
system
1. Cell body
a) Nissl bodies
b) Neurofilaments
c) Microtubules
d) Lipofuscin pigment
clumps
2. Cell processes
a) Dendrites
b) Axons
9
Dendrites
impulse
Conducts impulses towards
the cell body
Typically short, highly
branched & unmyelinated
Surfaces specialized for
contact with other neurons
Contains neurofibrils &
Nissl bodies
11
Axons
Conduct impulses away from
cell body
Long, thin cylindrical process of
cell
Arises at axon hillock
Impulses arise from initial
segment (trigger zone)
Side branches (collaterals) end
in fine processes called axon
terminals
Swollen tips called synaptic end
bulbs contain vesicles filled with
neurotransmitters
12
Structural Classification of Neurons
Based on number of processes
found on cell body
1.
multipolar = several
dendrites & one axon
2.
bipolar neurons = one main
dendrite & one axon
3.
most common cell type
found in retina, inner ear
& olfactory
unipolar neurons = one
process only(develops from
a bipolar)
are always sensory
neurons
14
Structural Classification of Neurons
Based on number of processes
found on cell body
1.
multipolar = several
dendrites & one axon
2.
bipolar neurons = one main
dendrite & one axon
3.
most common cell type
found in retina, inner ear
& olfactory
unipolar neurons = one
process only(develops from
a bipolar)
are always sensory
neurons
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Structural Classification of Neurons
Based on number of processes
found on cell body
1.
multipolar = several
dendrites & one axon
2.
bipolar neurons = one main
dendrite & one axon
3.
most common cell type
found in retina, inner ear
& olfactory
unipolar neurons = one
process only(develops from
a bipolar)
are always sensory
neurons
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Association or Interneurons
Named for histologist that
first described them or their
appearance
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Neuroglial Cells
Half of the volume of the CNS
Smaller cells than neurons
50X more numerous
Cells can divide
rapid mitosis in tumor
formation (gliomas)
4 cell types in CNS
astrocytes, oligodendrocytes,
microglia & ependymal
2 cell types in PNS
schwann and satellite cells
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Neuroglial Cells (CNS): Astrocytes
Star-shaped cells
Form blood-brain barrier
by covering blood
capillaries
Metabolize
neurotransmitters
Regulate K+ balance
Provide structural support
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Neuroglial Cells (CNS): Oligodendrocytes
Most common glial cell
type
Each forms myelin sheath
around more than one
axons in CNS
Analogous to Schwann
cells of PNS
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Neuroglial Cells (CNS): Microglia
Small cells found near
blood vessels
Phagocytic role -- clear
away dead cells
Derived from cells that also
gave rise to macrophages &
monocytes
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Neuroglial Cells (CNS): Ependymal cells
Form epithelial membrane
lining cerebral cavities &
central canal
Produce cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF)
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Neuroglial Cells (PNS): Satellite Cells
Flat cells surrounding
neuronal cell bodies in
peripheral ganglia
Support neurons in the PNS
ganglia
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Neuroglial Cells (PNS): Schwann Cell
Cells encircling PNS axons
Each cell produces part of
the myelin sheath
surrounding an axon in the
PNS
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Myelination
Insulation of axon
Increase speed of nerve impulse
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Myelination: PNS
All axons surrounded by a
lipid & protein covering
(myelin sheath) produced by
Schwann cells
Neurilemma is cytoplasm &
nucleus
of Schwann cell
gaps called nodes of
Ranvier
Node of
Ranvier
Myelinated fibers
Unmyelinated fibers
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Myelination: PNS
Schwann cells myelinate
(wrap around) axons in the
PNS during fetal
development
Schwann cell cytoplasm &
nucleus forms outermost
layer of neurolemma with
inner portion being the
myelin sheath
Tube guides growing axons
that are repairing
themselves
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Myelination: CNS
Oligodendrocytes
myelinate axons in the
CNS
Broad, flat cell processes
wrap about CNS axons, but
the cell bodies do not
surround the axons
No neurilemma is formed
Little regrowth after injury
is possible due to the lack
of a distinct tube or
neurilemma
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Gray and White Matter
White matter = myelinated processes (white in color)
Gray matter = nerve cell bodies, dendrites, axon terminals,
bundles of unmyelinated axons and neuroglia (gray color)
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I.
Overview
II.
Histology
III.
Electrical Signals
1.
Overview
2.
Ion Channels
3.
Resting Membrane Potential
4.
Graded Potential
5.
Generation of Action Potential
6.
Propagation of Nerve Impulses
7.
Encoding of Stimulus Intensity
8.
Comparison of Electrical Signals
IV.
Signal Transmission at Synapses
V.
Neurotransmitters
VI.
Neural Circuits
VII.
Repairs
VIII.
Pathology
Nervous
System
30
Electrical Signals in Neurons
Neurons are electrically excitable due to the voltage
difference across their membrane
Communicate with 2 types of electric signals
1. action potentials that can travel long distances
2. graded potentials that are local membrane changes only
In living cells, a flow of ions occurs through ion channels
in the cell membrane
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Ion Channels
1. Leakage (nongated)
channels are always
open
Na
2. Gated channels can
open and close
a. Voltage-gated
b. Chemically
(ligand)-gated
c. Mechanically-gated
Na
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Gated Ion Channels (Voltage-Gated)
K
K
ECF
ICF
K
K
K
K
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Gated Ion Channels (Ligand-Gated)
K
K
NT
ECF
ICF
K
K
K
K
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Action Potential
Na+
Series of rapidly occurring
events that change and then
restore the membrane potential
of a cell to its resting state
Ion channels open:
1.
Na+ rushes in
(depolarization)
2.
K+ rushes out
(repolarization)
All-or-none principal
Travels (spreads) over surface
of cell without dying out
K+
Depolarization
Na+
K+
Repolarization
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Repolarizing Phase of Action Potential
Na+
When threshold potential of -55mV is
reached, voltage-gated
K+ channels open
K+
1. Na+ channel opening which caused
depolarization
Hyperpolarization
Repolarization
Depolarization
2. K+ channels finally do open, the Na+
channels have already closed (Na+
inflow stops)
K+ outflow returns membrane
potential to -70mV causing
repolarization
3. If enough K+ leaves the cell, it will
reach a -90mV membrane
potential and enter the afterhyperpolarizing phase
K+ channels close and the
membrane potential returns to the
resting potential of -70mV
+30
0
-55
-70
40
Refractory Period of Action Potential
Na+
Period of time during which
neuron can not generate another
action potential
K+
Repolarization
Depolarization
Absolute refractory period
Hyperpolarization
even very strong stimulus will
not begin another AP
+30
Relative refractory period
a suprathreshold stimulus will
be able to start an AP
0
-55
-70
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Propagation of Action Potential
An action potential spreads
(propagates) over the
surface of the axon
membrane
as Na+ flows into the cell
during depolarization, the
voltage of adjacent areas
is effected and their
voltage-gated Na+
channels open
self-propagating along the
membrane
The traveling action
potential is called a nerve
impulse
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
A.P.
43
Continuous versus Saltatory Conduction
1. Continuous
conduction
(unmyelinated fibers)
2. Saltatory conduction
(myelinated fibers)
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
A.P.
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Saltatory Conduction
Na
Nerve impulse conduction
in which the impulse jumps
(Salta) from node to node
A.P.
Na
Na
Na
Na
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I.
Overview
II.
Histology
III.
Electrical Signals
IV.
Signal Transmission at Synapses
1.
Overview
2.
Electrical synapses
3.
Chemical synapses
4.
Excitatoryand Inhibitory
Postsynaptic Potential
5.
Removal of Neurotransmitter
6.
Spatial and Temporal Summation
of Postsynaptic Potentials
V.
Neurotransmitters
VI.
Neural Circuits
Nervous
System
52
Signal Transmission at Synapses
2 Types of synapses
1. electrical
ionic current spreads to next cell through gap
junctions
faster, two-way transmission & capable of
synchronizing groups of neurons
2. chemical
one-way information transfer from a presynaptic
neuron to a postsynaptic neuron
axodendritic -- from axon to dendrite
axosomatic -- from axon to cell body
axoaxonic -- from axon to axon
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Chemical Synapses
Action potential reaches end
bulb and voltage-gated Ca+ 2
channels open
Ca+2 flows inward triggering
release of neurotransmitter
Presynaptic
Neuron
Na
Na
NT
Neurotransmitter crosses
synaptic cleft & binding to
ligand-gated receptors
the more neurotransmitter
released the greater the change
in potential of the postsynaptic
cell
Na
NT
Calcium
Synpatic
Cleft
Synaptic delay is 0.5 msec
One-way information transfer
Postsynaptic
Neuron
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Excitatory & Inhibitory Potentials
The effect of a neurotransmitter can be
either excitatory or inhibitory
1.
it results from the opening of
ligand-gated Na+ channels
Na
NT
Calcium
the postsynaptic cell is more
likely to reach threshold
an inhibitory postsynaptic potential
is called an IPSP
Na
Na
a depolarizing postsynaptic
potential is called an EPSP
2.
Presynaptic
Neuron
it results from the opening of
ligand-gated Cl- or K+
channels
it causes the postsynaptic cell
to become more negative or
hyperpolarized
the postsynaptic cell is less
likely to reach threshold
NT
Synpatic
Cleft
Na
Postsynaptic
Neuron
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Excitatory & Inhibitory Potentials
The effect of a neurotransmitter can be
either excitatory or inhibitory
1.
it results from the opening of
ligand-gated Na+ channels
Na
Na
a depolarizing postsynaptic
potential is called an EPSP
2.
Presynaptic
Neuron
Na
NT
Calcium
the postsynaptic cell is more
likely to reach threshold
an inhibitory postsynaptic potential
is called an IPSP
it results from the opening of
ligand-gated Cl- or K+
channels
it causes the postsynaptic cell
to become more negative or
hyperpolarized
the postsynaptic cell is less
likely to reach threshold
NT
Synpatic
Cleft
K
Postsynaptic
Neuron
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Removal of Neurotransmitter
1. Diffusion
move down
concentration gradient
Presynaptic
Neuron
Na
Na
Na
NT
Calcium
2. Enzymatic degradation
acetylcholinesterase
NT
3. Uptake by neurons or glia
cells
Synpatic
Cleft
Na
K
neurotransmitter
transporters
Postsynaptic
Neuron
57
Summation
1. Spatial Summation of
effects of
neurotransmitters released
from several end bulbs
onto one neuron
NT
2. Temporal Summation of
effect of neurotransmitters
released from 2 or more
firings of the same end
bulb in rapid succession
onto a second neuron
58
Summation
1. Spatial Summation of
effects of
neurotransmitters released
from several end bulbs
onto one neuron
NT
2. Temporal Summation of
effect of neurotransmitters
released from 2 or more
firings of the same end
bulb in rapid succession
onto a second neuron
59
Summation: Three Possible Responses
1. Small EPSP occurs
potential reaches -56
mV only
2. An impulse is generated
threshold was reached
membrane potential of
at least -55 mV
3.
NT
IPSP occurs
membrane
hyperpolarized
potential drops below 70 mV
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I.
Overview
II.
Histology
III. Electrical Signals
IV.
Signal Transmission at
Synapses
V.
Neurotransmitters
1.
NT Effect
2.
Small-molecule
3.
Neuropeptides
VI.
Neural Circuits
Nervous
System
64
Neurotransmitter Effects
Neurotransmitter effects can be
modified
1.
Synthesis
&
Release
2.
release can be blocked or
enhanced
3.
removal can be stimulated or
blocked
Removal
receptor site can be blocked
or activated
Receptor
4.
synthesis can be stimulated
or inhibited
NT
Categorized by size:
1.
Small – molecule
2.
Large
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Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine (ACh)
released by many
PNS neurons &
some CNS
excitatory on NMJ
but inhibitory at
others
inactivated by
acetylcholinesterase
Neuron
Ach
Muscle
67
Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters
2. Amino Acids
Glutamate
(+)
a) Glutamate released by
nearly all excitatory
neurons in the brain
b) GABA is inhibitory
neurotransmitter for
1/3 of all brain
synapses
Valium is a GABA
agonist - enhancing
its inhibitory effect
GABA
(-)
Valium
68
Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters (2)
3.
Biogenic Amines modified amino acids
(tyrosine)
1.
norepinephrine -regulates mood,
dreaming, awakening
from deep sleep
2.
dopamine -- regulating
skeletal muscle tone
3.
serotonin -- control of
mood, temperature
regulation, & induction
of sleep
removed from synapse &
recycled or destroyed by
enzymes (monoamine
oxidase or catechol-0methyltransferase)
69
Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters (3)
4.
ATP and other purines (ADP,
AMP & adenosine)
excitatory in both CNS & PNS
released with other
neurotransmitters (ACh & NE)
5.
Gases (nitric oxide or NO)
formed from amino acid
arginine by an enzyme
formed on demand and acts
immediately
diffuses out of cell that
produced it to affect
neighboring cells
may play a role in memory
& learning
first recognized as vasodilator
that helps lower blood pressure
70
Neuropeptides
3-40 amino acids linked by
peptide bonds
Substance P -- enhances our
perception of pain
Pain relief
enkephalins -- pain-relieving
effect by blocking the release
of substance P
acupuncture may produce loss
of pain sensation because of
release of opioids-like
substances such as endorphins
or dynorphins
71
I.
Overview
II.
Histology
III. Electrical Signals
IV. Signal Transmission at
Synapses
V.
Nervous
System
Neurotransmitters
VI. Neural Circuits
72
Neuronal Circuits
Neurons in the CNS are organized into neuronal
networks
may contain thousands or even millions of
neurons.
Neuronal circuits are involved in many important
activities
1. breathing
2. short-term memory
3. waking up
73
Neuronal Circuits
1.
Diverging -- single cell
stimulates many others
2.
Converging -- one cell
stimulated by many others
3.
Reverberating -- impulses from
later cells repeatedly stimulate
early cells in the circuit (shortterm memory)
4.
Parallel-after-discharge -single cell stimulates a group
of cells that all stimulate a
common postsynaptic cell
(math problems)
74
Neuronal Circuits
1.
Diverging -- single cell
stimulates many others
2.
Converging -- one cell
stimulated by many others
3.
Reverberating -- impulses from
later cells repeatedly stimulate
early cells in the circuit (shortterm memory)
4.
Parallel-after-discharge -single cell stimulates a group
of cells that all stimulate a
common postsynaptic cell
(math problems)
75
Neuronal Circuits
1.
Diverging -- single cell
stimulates many others
2.
Converging -- one cell
stimulated by many others
3.
Reverberating -- impulses
from later cells repeatedly
stimulate early cells in the
circuit (short-term memory)
4.
Parallel-after-discharge -single cell stimulates a group
of cells that all stimulate a
common postsynaptic cell
(math problems)
76
Neuronal Circuits
1.
Diverging -- single cell
stimulates many others
2.
Converging -- one cell
stimulated by many others
3.
Reverberating -- impulses from
later cells repeatedly stimulate
early cells in the circuit (shortterm memory)
4.
Parallel-after-discharge -single cell stimulates a group
of cells that all stimulate a
common postsynaptic cell
(math problems)
77