Transcript Writing Scientific Research Articles
Writing Scientific Research Articles
C.B.S. Teh Dept. Land Management, Uni. Putra Malaysia Tel: 03-89466976; Email: [email protected]
www.christopherteh.com
Getting published is a skill
• Communicating your work – facing criticism and debate – adversarial approach • Writing skill is essential – command of English language – ability to explain and describe your work • clearly, concisely, and accurately
Selecting the journal
• Does it publish the kind of work you are doing?
• Is it a refereed journal?
• Is it cited?
• What is its impact factor?
– journal website – Journal Citation Reports (UPM online library) • Does it publish quickly?
• Are there paper charges?
Criteria for acceptance
• Is the contribution new?
• Is the contribution significant?
• Is it suitable for publication in
this
journal?
• Is the organization suitable?
• Do the methods and treatment of results conform to acceptable scientific standards?
Criteria for acceptance
• Are all conclusions firmly based in the data presented?
• Minor issues – Is the length of paper satisfactory?
– Are the illustrations, figures, and tables adequate?
– Are the references recent and adequate?
Article structure
• Abstract • Introduction • Materials and methods • Results sometimes combined • Discussion • Conclusions • Acknowledgements • Appendices • References
Title of paper
• Good titles identify the field of research and indicate the kind of results to be obtained • Avoid – long titles – too general/vague titles • • can be misleading
e.g.
, “Effects of fertilizers on crops” – a Review paper?
Example of title
•
“Bird use on rice field strips of varying width in the Kanto Plain of central Japan”
– The focus is on birds in relation to rice fields – The width of rice field strips was varied in the study – Width of strips was correlated with the number and species of birds using them – The research took place in central Japan
Example of title
•
“Use of in situ 15 N-labelling to estimate the total below-ground nitrogen of pasture legumes in intact soil-plant systems”
– The paper focuses on a particular method (in situ 15 N-labelling) – The parameter measured was total below ground nitrogen – The measurement site/context was undisturbed systems involving both plants and soil – The plants used were pasture legumes
Order of preparation
1. Materials and methods 2. Results 3. Discussion 4. Conclusion 5. Introduction 6. Abstract
Introduction section
• Introduction – Problem statement • What is the problem?
– Justification of work • Why is the problem important?
– (Impartial) Literature review • Past work results – Objectives (and hypothesis) of study
Citation
• Referencing other work is crucial – helps to develop your arguments – prove that you clearly know what has been done before and what needs to be done • Citing when you cannot obtain the original reference –
– in this case, only Jones (2002) appears in the reference list
Plagiarism
• “Plagiarism is using data, ideas, or words that originated elsewhere without appropriately acknowledging the source.” – serious offense – reviewers may be knowledgeable in the sources you “stole”
Materials and methods section
• Briefly, include – site location (latitude and longitude, elevation) – characteristics of study area (weather, soil, vegetation) • Describe all methods used in study – prefer to cite reference for methods – do not elaborate on commonly used methods
Materials and methods
• Describe statistical analysis – experimental design and layout – additional statistics used (e.g., correlation and regression) • Describe equipment and software used – brand, version, and name and location of company • Use past tense
Results section
• Present only relevant data – data that serve as evidence to accept or reject hypothesis • Use the best presentation method to display data – Table or Figure?
– highlights the most important information prominently – is essential to support your “story”
Results
• Presentation of results must be – clear, accurate, and concise – do not duplicate data already shown earlier •
e.g.
, using a table and figure to display the same data
Tables
• Tables are most useful for – recording data (raw or processed data) – explaining calculations or showing components of calculated data – showing the actual data values and their precision – allowing multiple comparisons between elements in many directions
Figures
• Figures are most useful for – showing an overall trend or ‘‘picture’’; – comprehension of the story through ‘‘shape’’ rather than the actual numbers; and – allowing simple comparisons between only a few elements.
Choosing between table and figure
Most useful
When working with
Table
numbers
Figure
shapes When concentrating on individual data values overall pattern When accurate or precise actual values are more important less important
Sample table
- contains correct and complete units - minimize horizontal lines, and no vertical lines - proper formatting (numbers are aligned) - adequate number of decimal points
Figures
• Pie charts – comparing proportions of a total or whole • Column and bar charts – comparing the values of different categories when they are
independent
of each other (
e.g.
, boys and girls or different countries) • Scatter charts – display a sequence of variables in time or space – display
dependent
relationships (
e.g.
, change over time or fertilizer rates).
Common mistakes in preparing figures
• Wrong figure type has been chosen • Relationships between elements are not obvious – or are apparent when they do not exist • The shape, shading, pattern or weight of symbols, markers, or lines does not emphasize the main results • Cluttered with lines, legend symbols, or numbers
Common mistakes in preparing figures
• Poorly chosen axis scale divisions – too many or too little • Axes not labeled or do not have units
Sample figure 1
Sample figure 2
Figures: dots-per-inch (DPI)
• Most journals require at least 300 DPI figures • Copy-and-paste only provides 72 or 96 DPI – far too low for print publications
Figures: dots-per-inch (DPI)
• In Excel ver 2003, – select chart, hold down SHIFT button, and choose EDIT then COPY PICTURE from Excel’s main menu bar
Figures: dots-per-inch (DPI)
• Or download SciChart ( www.christopherteh.com/scichart.zip
) – works only in Excel 2003
Figures: dots-per-inch (DPI)
• Unfortunately in Excel 2007, Copy Picture does not give good resolution • Instead – select chart, then Print to PDF file – Open PDF file and Save As TIFF file (change Settings for 300 DPI first)
Use of tense in results section
• Past tense – when the sentence focuses on the completed study: what was done and found • Present tense – to describe an ‘‘always true’’ situation – when the sentence focuses on the document
Discussion section
• In Results, you described the observed trend – what was the trend?
• In Discussion, you explain the observed trend – why is the trend like that?
– support from results from your own study and from previous studies
Conclusion section
• Not a summary of results!
• Do not
re
-defend your results here!
• Do not introduce new facts here!
• Conclusion is where you answer directly your study’s objectives • Write the conclusion as though you would be telling it (verbally) to a very busy person whom you want to impress about your study’s findings
Conclusion example
• Objective: – “To determine the effectiveness of mulch A, B, and C on conserving soil water” • Conclusion: – “Mulch C was determined as the best mulch to conserve soil water, followed by mulch B, then A. On average, mulch C conserved soil water nearly 1.5 times more water than mulch B and 2.3 times more than mulch C. Using mulch C would save up to 1000 mm of water per year.”
Abstract
• Always written last • Summary of
research
(not summary of results) – Problem and justification of study – The principal activity (or purpose) of the study and its scope – Information about some of the methods used – The most important results – A statement of conclusion or recommendation
Submitting the manuscript
• Submissions now mostly through online • Read the journal’s
Guide to Authors
– follow thoroughly,
e.g.
, format and style for paper margins, font size, line spacing, references, citations, number of words in abstract, figures, tables, equations,
etc
.
• Prepare cover letter • Prepare list of potential reviewers – search past papers related to yours – sometimes up to four needed
Documents
Manuscript Cover letter Main text Tables Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 TIFF format (300 DPI)
Reviewers’ comments?
Reviewers’ comments?
Revision or rejection?
• Very rarely a manuscript is accepted first time as it is • Don’t get angry!
– don’t take it personally – understand the reviewers objections, criticism, or reservations – reviewers’ fault or your fault?
• perhaps your explanation was unclear
Revision
• Revision – Read carefully each reviewer’s comments – Respond / answer each of their suggestions and questions • point-by-point response/answer – your paper will often be much improved after following the reviewers’ suggestions
Rejection
• Rejection – Read carefully each reviewer’s comments – Respond / answer each of their suggestions and questions • point-by-point response/answer – your paper will often be much improved after following the reviewers’ suggestions • Submit to another journal
More information
• “How to write and publish a scientific paper”, 6 th Edn., Robert A. Day and Barbara Gastel, Greenwood Press, 2006. • EnglishClub.com website – www.englishclub.com/grammar/index.htm
• Use Google – keywords: writing scientific articles