Burns - Pediatrics House Staff
Download
Report
Transcript Burns - Pediatrics House Staff
Nicole Baier, MD
Statistics
In US:
1.2 million burns each year
60,000 hospitalizations
6000 deaths
2nd leading cause of unintentional death in children
(after MVA)
Pediatric incidence by type of burn:
Scald burns: 85%
Flame burns: 13%
Remaining 2%: electrical and chemical burns
The Skin
Barrier to:
Fluid loss
Entry of infection
Heat loss
epidermis
dermis
Burn Classification
1st degree (superficial)
Epidermis only
Erythematous, painful
No blistering
Classification
2nd degree (partial thickness)
Injury to epidermis and variable portion of dermis
Moist, pink or red, blanches to touch
Vesicles and blisters
Extremely painful
Heal spontaneously
Classification
3rd degree (full thickness)
Entire epidermis and dermis
No residual epidermal cells – require skin grafting
Leathery, white or black or brown
Not painful (no viable nerve endings)
High risk of scarring
Classification
4th degree
Involve underlying structures (tendons, nerves, muscles,
bone, fascia)
Reconstructive surgery often necessary
Estimation of Burn Size
Used to calculate fluids for IVF resuscitation
Only 2nd and 3rd degree burns considered
Adults: Rule of nines
Pediatric: Lund-Brower chart
Estimate: palm of patient’s hand = 1% BSA
Burn Diagrams
Acute Assessment
AIRWAY
Airway edema caused by inhalational injury
Direct thermal injury – supraglottic
Suspicion increased if:
Facial/ oral burns
Soot in mouth/nose
Singed nasal hairs
Wheezing, stridor, or hoarseness noted
Intubation should be performed quickly as edema can
progress rapidly (over initial 24-36 hours)
Acute Assessment
BREATHING– Initial findings
Early hypoxia may result from:
Airway obstruction
Impaired chest wall compliance (circumferential burns)
Decreased ambient FiO2 (10-15%)
Carbon monoxide
Cyanide
Produced when wool, silk, nylon, polyurethane burn
Disrupts mitochondrial oxygen use by complexing with
cytochrome
CO and CN are responsible for majority of early mortality at
scene
Children more susceptible to toxicity of inhaled materials due
to higher minute ventilation
Carbon Monoxide
Affinity for hemoglobin 250x > O2
Decreases oxygen carrying capacity
Shifts oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve to left
Binds to myoglobin and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase
Interfere with cell oxygen use and energy production
Measured with co-oximetry
20-30% = headache, dizziness
40-50% = altered LOC
>50% = coma, death
Treatment: 100% oxygen
½ life in room air: 4-6 hours
½ life in 100% FiO2: 40-60 minutes
Acute Assessment
BREATHING – Later findings
Chemical irritants injure tracheobronchial tree and lung
parenchyma
Lower airway edema
Respiratory epithelium sloughs - cast formation causes airway
obstruction
Manifests as: bronchospasm, post-obstructive atelectsis
Patients also at risk for:
Surfactant deficiency due to damage to type II pneumocytes
ARDS
After 72 hours: nosocomial pneumonia may develop
Restrictive lung disease may develop in survivors
Acute Assessment
CIRCULATION
In 50% BSA burn:
1 minute after burn, cardiac output is ½ of preburn state
At 1 hour, cardiac output is 1/3 of preburn state
Hypovolemic shock
Loss of skin integrity increases evaporative losses 6-7X
Increased vascular permeability leads to interstitial edema
and intravascular volume loss
Maximal at 30 minutes
Capillary integrity restored 8-12 hours post-injury
Myocardial depression also occurs
Thought to be due to TNF release
Acute Management
CIRCULATION
Burns >15% BSA require IV fluid resuscitation to maintain
perfusion
Time to IV access is a major predictor of mortality in pediatric
patients who have burns greater than 80% TBSA
IV preferably placed in nonburned tissues
Acute Management
CIRCULATION
Parkland Formula:
Used to determine resuscitation fluids = LR
4 mL x weight (kg) x % TBSA burned
½ over 1st 8 hours, ½ over remaining 16 hours
Added to maintenance dextrose-containing fluids
Monitor hemodynamics, urine output and adjust fluids
accordingly
Question
You have a 14 month old, 11 kg infant who was involved
in a house fire and has second degree burns to both of
her hands, feet, her right lower arm and both lower
legs. What IV fluids should she receive over the 1st 24
hours?
Burn Diagrams
Answer
Calculate % BSA:
1.
Both hands: 3 x 2 = 6%
Both feet: 3.5 x 2 = 7%
Right lower arm = 3%
Both lower legs: 5 x 2 = 10%
= 26% TBSA Burn
Parkland Formula:
2.
4 mL x 11 kg x 26% = 1144 mL fluid resuscitation
requirement
572 mL over 1st 8 hours = 61 mL/hr of LR
572 over remaining 16 hours = 35 mL/hr of LR
Maintenance Fluid Requirement
3.
44 mL/hr of D5 ½ NS
Other initial management
Remove all clothing that is hot/ burned/ exposed to
chemicals
Prevent continued skin damage
Wound treatment
Clean with mild soap and water
Apply cool saline-soaked gauze – decreases pain
Do not apply ice – produces hypothermia, worsens
damage
Covering with a sheet may decrease pain by decreasing
environmental exposure
Electrical injuries
Minor surface burns may hide massive coagulation
necrosis of muscle and deep tissues
Risk of rhabdomyolysis
Risk of cardiac abnormalities
Asystole, ventricular tachycardia/ fibrillation
Atrial and ventricular ectopy, 1st and 2nd degree heart
block, bundle branch blook, prolonged QT
Non-specific ST-T changes and interval delays most
common
Electrical Injuries
Tissue injury is directly proportional to resistance
Nerves, muscles, blood vessels have lowest resistance
Electricity preferentially flows through these structures
More severe damage
Increased resistance:
Skin
Tendons
Bone
Fat
Water decreases resistance, therefore moist areas (eg,
axillae) tend to sustain more damage
Electrical Injuries
Type of current
AC (household electricity) is more dangerous
Continual muscle contraction and relaxation results in muscle
tetany
Eg, a 60 Hz alternating current changes direction 120x/ second
DC (lightning strikes) produces muscle contraction only
at beginning and end of current flow
Electrical Injuries
Current Pathway
Current may flow in 1 of 3 pathways:
Hand to hand
60% mortality rate due to:
Spinal cord transection at C4-C8
Suffocation due to chest wall muscle tetany
Myocardial muscle damage
Hand to foot
20% mortality rate due to cardiac arrhythmias
Foot to foot
5% mortality rate
Additional Management for
Electrical Injuries
Obtain EKG
Consider obtaining cardiac enzymes
Monitor patients with medium and high-voltage
injuries on monitor for 24-72 hours
Compartment Syndrome
Most common early cause of diminished pulses is
inadequate resuscitation
High index of suspicion for elevated compartmental
pressures in circumferential burn
Emergent escharotomy or fasciotomy is indicated for
limb salvage in pulseless extremity
Thoracic escharotomies are occasionally required to
improve chest-wall compliance and facilitate
ventilation
Ongoing Management
Hypermetabolic state
Increase in metabolism over 1st 5 days – then plateau
through remainder of acute admission and into rehab
Due to surge of catecholamines, cortisol, aldosterone,
growth hormone
Insulin secretion decreased, tissues insulin resistant
Degree correlates with extent of injury
Hypermetabolic State
Manifestations
Tachycardia, increased cardiac output
Hyperthermia
Baseline temp reset to 38.5⁰C
Increased gluconeogenesis, protein catabolism, lipolysis
Resting energy expenditure 2-3 x normal
May be associated with:
Impaired wound healing
Sepsis
Loss of lean body and muscle mass
Hypermetabolic State
In burn injuries > 40% TBSA:
Resting metabolic rate at 33°C is:
180% of basal rate at admission
150% at full healing of the wound
140% 6 months after the injury
120% at 9 months post injury
110% after 12 months
Hart DW, Wolf SE, Mlcak R, et al. Persistence of muscle catabolism after severe burn. Surgery 2000;
128: 312–319.
Hypermetabolic state
Long-term consequences
Profound muscle wasting
Decreased bone mineral density
Retarded linear growth in children
In 80 patients with > 40% TBSA burn:
Profound growth arrest noted during postburn year 1
Growth improved to normal by postburn year 3
Rutan FL, Herndon DN. Growth delay in postburn pediatric patients. Arch Surg 1990; 125: 392-395.
Ongoing Management
Feeds started EARLY
Within 6 hours of admission
Require up to 50% more calories than at baseline
Hypermetabolic state
Pain and anxiety increase physiologic demands
Greater heat loss occurs in young infants with larger surface
area-to-mass ratios
Reduces bacterial translocation and sepsis
TPN avoided due to infectious complications
Goal: full feeds by 24-48 hours
Infectious Concerns
Risk of infection related to:
Loss of skin barrier
Wound colonization is universal by 1-2 weeks post-injury
Presence of inhalational injury - compromises normal
clearance mechanisms
5x higher rate of pneumonia
Immunosuppression
Impaired cellular and humoral immune response
Infection now responsible for 50-60% of deaths in
burn patients
Topical Therapies
Bactroban
Used for superficial burns, primarily on face
Silvadene (silver sulfadiazene)
Bacteriocidal
Cannot be used in those with sulfa allergies
Causes neutropenia and thrombocytopenia
Topical Therapies
Sulfamylon (mafenide acetate)
Better penetration of deep burns, eschars, and cartilage
Bacteriostatic
Better gram negative coverage (pseudomonas)
Causes fungal overgrowth
Painful
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor – causes metabolic
acidosis
Surgical Wound Management
Early excision and closure of full thickness burn
wound
If wound >50% TBSA is totally excised and covered
with autograft within 2–3 days:
Metabolic rate 40% less compared with wound coverage
1 week post injury
Hart DW, Wolf SE and Chinkes D, et al. Determinants of skeletal muscle catabolism. Ann Surg
2000; 233: 455–465.
Surgical Wound Management
Other benefits of early wound excision
Decreases pain
Provides barrier to fluid and heat loss, bacterial invasion
Decreases length of stay
Accelerates recovery
Fewer septic complications
Decreased morbidity and death
Surgical Wound Management
Serial wound excision and grafting is the standard of
care for full-thickness burns
When the burned area exceeds donor site supply
(burns >30% BSA), homografts from donors or skin
substitutes are used
Taken back to OR weekly to replace homografts with
autografts as donor sites heal
Criteria for Admission
>15% BSA
3rd degree burns
Electrical burns
Inhalational injury
Burns to hands, feet, face, genitalia, joint surfaces
Suspected abuse or neglect
Inadequate home situation
Outpatient Treatment
Leave blisters intact
Dress burns with silvadene
Wash wound and change dressings BID
Pain control with tylenol or tylenol with codeine
Identifying abusive burns
15-20% of burn injuries are the result of abuse
Suspicious patterns:
Glove or stocking burns of hands and feet
Deep burns on trunk or back
Small-area full-thickness burns (cigarette)
Circumferential burns
Burns localized to the perineum or buttocks
Symmetric burns
Burn Prevention
Preset water heaters to max of 120⁰ F
Duration of exposure required to produce full-thickness
burn:
120⁰ F:
130⁰ F:
140⁰ F:
150⁰ F:
158⁰ F:
10 minutes
30 seconds
5 seconds
2 seconds
1 second
Federal Flammable Fabric Act
Requires sleepwear to be flame retardant
Use of smoke detectors