Transcript Philosophes - Leleua Loupe

CHAPTER 18
The West on the Eve of a New World
Order :
Toward a New Heaven and a New Earth:
An Intellectual Revolution in the west
Focus Questions/ID’s
• Who were the leading figures of the
Scientific Revolution and the
Enlightenment, and what were their main
contributions
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Montesquieu
Voltaire
Diderot Rene Descartes
Philosophes
Mary Wollstonecraft
Adam Smith
Rousseau
Toward a New Heaven and a
New Earth:
• 17th C scientists fomented a Scientific
Revolution:
• Changed the way people viewed the universe
their place in it
• Challenged conceptions and beliefs about the
nature of the external world
• Affected only a small number of European
elite
Toward a New Heaven and a
New Earth:
18th C Intellectuals
• Intellectuals popularized the ideas of the
scientific revolution
• Used ideas to re examine all aspects of life
and existence
• Challenged conceptions and beliefs about the
world that were dominant in the Late Middle
Ages
The Scientific Revolution
Toward a New Earth
• French Philosopher
Rene Descartes
• (1596 – 1650)
• Father of Modern
Rationalism
• Discourse in Method,
1637
– would accept only things
that his reason said were
true.
Descartes
Cartesian Dualism: Argued the separation of
mind and matter
• since the mind cannot be doubted but the body
and material world can the two must be radically
different
Scientific Revolution
• John Locks, Essay
Concerning Human
Understanding, 1690,
– Theory of knowledge
• denied the existence of
innate ideas
• Tabula Rasa
– people molded by environment
– changing the environment and
subjecting people to proper
influences they could be
changed and a new society
created?
Enlightenment
• a movement of intellectuals who were
greatly impressed with the
accomplishments of the scientific
revolution.
• Advocated the use of Reason, or the
application of the scientific method to the
understanding of all life.
– Hoped that they could make progress towards
a better society than the one they inherited
Enlightenment
• Intellectuals or Philosophes of the
Enlightenment
– literary people, professors, journalists,
economists, political scientists, social
reformers.
• Nobility, middle class, a few from lower middle
class origins
• Center of the enlightenment, Paris, France
– They affected intellectuals elsewhere and
created a movement that touched the entire
western world
The Philosophes
• Montesquieu (1689-1755)
• French nobility
• The Spirit of Laws, 1748
– Comparative study of
government
– Attempted to apply scientific
method to the social and
political arena to ascertain
the “natural laws” governing
the social and political
relationships of human
beings
Montesquieu
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3 basic kinds of
government
 1. Republic
 2. Monarchy
(England)
 3. Despotism
The Philosophes
• Voltaire (1694-1778)
– prosperous middle class family from Paris
– Studied law, Play write, Prolific author
– Criticized traditional religions
– Advocated religious toleration
• He was famous for his declaration “Crush
he infamous thing” being religious
fanaticism, intolerance and superstition
Voltaire and Deism
• Championed Deism
– religious outlook shared
by most other
philosophes
– built on the Newtonian
World Machine,
– implied the existence of a
mechanic or god who
created the universe.
The Philisophes
• Diderot (1713-1784)
– Son of a skilled
craftsman from eastern
France
– Writer
– He condemned
Christianity as fanatical
and unreasonable
Diderot
• Encyclopedia, or
Classified Dictionary
of the Sciences, Arts,
and Trades (28
Volumes)
– Purpose to change
peoples general way
of thinking
New “Science of Man”
• The enlightenment belief that Newton’s
scientific methods could be used to
discover the natural laws underlying all
areas of human life led to the emergence
in the 18th C of social sciences
• Economics, Education, Politics or political
science
Adam Smith
• Adam Smith (1723 – 1790)
father of economics
– Believed that individuals
should be free to pursue their
won economic self interest
– Through the actions of these
individuals all society would
ultimately benefit
– Advocated laissez-faire
Economic policy of
government
Adam Smith
• He allotted government 3 basic functions
– Protect society from invasion
– Defend its citizens from injustice by means of
police force
– Keep certain public works such as roads and
canals that private individuals cannot afford
Later Enlightenment
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 –
1778)
– Political beliefs presented in two
major works
• Discourse on the Origins of the
Inequality of Mankind
– He argued that people had adopted
laws and governors in order to
preserve their private property
– In the process they became enslaved
by government
» What should people do to regain
their freedom?
Jean-Jacques
Rousseau
• The social contract, 1762
– He found the answer in the
concept of the social contract
– An entire society agreed to be
governed by its general will
• which was in theory in the best
interest of society by
representing what was ethical
The “Woman’s Question”
• Maria Winkelmann,
Germany
– Practiced astronomer
• She applied for a position as
assistant astronomer at
Berlin Academy
– Though highly qualified,
denied the position
• Members feared setting a
precedent by hiring a woman
A London Coffeehouse
•Associated with anti-government activity, means of
spreading enlightenment ideas
© British Museum/The Bridgeman Art Library
The “Women’s Question”
• Mary Wollstonecraft (1759 – 1797)
– viewed by many as the founder of modern
European feminism
• Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792
– The enlightenment was based on an ideal of
reason innate in all human beings,
• if women have reason they too are entitled to the
same rights that men have in education and in
economic and political life
Roots of Feminism
• Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)
– (The Feminist Bible)
– First Serious political & social manifesto to
address women’s servitude
• Linked demands to fundamental principles of
American democracy
• Helped make women’s movement part of
mainstream reform
• Sociological approach to ideas of feminine &
masculine challenged argument of female limitation
Mary’s Criticism of Political status
– Rights of Man should
be extended to
women
– “Natural Rights”
– White Men and slave
justified in rebellion
against monarchy &
Patriarchy
– Women also
Mary’s Criticism of Education
• Unequal education created women’s
dependency on men
• Women taught virtues that boys were
punished for
• If women exhibited true virtues they were
punished
– Curiosity
– Independence
– High spirits
Mary’s Criticism of Marriage
• Legitimized prostitution
– Women trading bodies & Procreation for economic
security
– Not good for men either long term
• Demanded replacing dependency with equality
• Marriage of friendship, respect & love
• Institution that subordinated women
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Economically
Socially
Psychologically
Physically
The
Enlightenment
in Europe
Economic Changes &
Social Order
• Focus Question:
– What changes occurred in the European
Economy in the 18th C, and to what degree
were theses changes reflected in social
patterns?
– Population growth
– Cottage industry
– Putting out system
– High and popular culture
Economic Changes and the
Social Order
• New Economic Patterns
– Population growth
• 1700 120 million – 1790 190 million
– Factors in population growth
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Falling death rate
Disappearance of bubonic plague
Relief of famines
Improvement in diet
Better transformation of food supplies
Improvement in Diet
• Improvement in agricultural practices
– More land farmed
– Yields per acre increased
• Little ice age of the 17th Century waned
– Better growing conditions
• Potato and Maize of Americas
– More plentiful and nutritious
Global Economy: Commercial
Capitalism
• Cottage Industry/Putting-out system
• 18th C oversea trade boomed
– Gold from the Americas to Spain
– Gold and silver to Britain, France,
Netherlands in return for manufactured goods
– British, French and Dutch bought spices, tea
and silk, cotton goods from China and Indian
to sell in Europe
– Slave trade between Europe, Americas and
Africa
Global Trade Patterns of the European States in
the Eighteenth Century
th
18
C European Society
• Traditional hierarchy and disparity of wealth
based on heredity
• Nobles 2-3%
– exempt from all taxation,
– Administrative and military offices
• Patrician Oligarchies (in urban centers)
– Dominated & controlled through city & town councils
• Middle class
– Non noble office holders, financiers, bankers, merchants
– Rentiers-lived off investments
• Lower middle class – artisans, shopkeepers, small
traders
• Working and unskilled class
• Peasantry (85%) Free and serf
The Aristocratic Way of Life
© Collection of the Earl of Pembroke/The Bridgeman Art Library
Colonial Empires and
Revolution in the Western
Hemisphere
• Focus Question:
– How did Spain and Portugal administer their
American colonies, and what were the main
characteristics of Latin American society in
the 18th C?
– Mestizos, Mullatoes, Zambos
– Viceroy
– Republic of Zambos
– System of Asiento
Identifications continued
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Casa de Contratacion
Merchant Guilds
Piracy
Contraband trade
Juana Ines de La Cruz
Palenques & Quilombos
La Republica de Zambos
The Society of Latin America
• 16th Century Latin America
– Portugal: Brazil
– Spain: Central America, most of South
America
• Multiracial society
– Mestizos: Intermarriage between Spanish and
indigenous peoples
– Mulattoes: Intermarriage between Europeans
and Africans
– Zambos: indigenous and African descent
The Society of Latin America
• The Economic
Foundations
– Gold and Silver
– Agriculture
• Estates & Peons
– Trade
• Colonies a source
of raw materials
for exports
– Gold, silver,
diamonds, sugar,
animal hides
Mines of Potosi, Peru, 1590
• Pack train of
llamas
Middle Passage
• System of Asiento
(middle passage)
– 16th C 75,000 Africans
– 18th C 9.5 million
enslaved
Palenques & Quilombos
• La Republica de Zambos, 1599
• 16th C portrait of Don Francisco de Arobe,
black ruler of an Ecuadorian province
Commerce, Smuggling, Piracy
• Casa de Contratacion (house of trade)
• est. 1503 in Seville
• Wealthier merchants of Seville and Cadiz
– Maintained trade monopoly
• Seville Merchant oligarchy or guilds
– kept the colonial markets under stocked
– forced colonists to pay exorbitant prices for all
European goods acquired through legal
channels.
• generated colonial discontent and stimulated the
growth of contraband trade.
England’s Challenge to Spain
• Piracy:
• Queen Elizabeth
– Sir Francis Drake,1577
• “singe the King of Spain’s beard”
– seized treasure ships
– ravaged colonial towns
• Treaty of Madrid in 1670 between England
and Spain.
The Church of the Indies
• Isabella & Ferdinand
– Founded the Spanish Inquisition
– Political and religious uses
– Nominated all church officials
– Collected tithes
– Founded churches and monasteries
throughout Americas
• Pope Julius II (1508) accorded this privilege to
Spain’s rulers to assist in converting New world
heathens
Missionary Impulse
• Dominicans, under the leadership of
Bartholome de las Casas
– Believed the encomienda was incompatible
with the welfare of the natives
• Dominican bishop Antonio de Valdivieso of
Nicaragua
– tried to enforce the abolition of indigenous
slavery by the New Laws
• assassinated in 1550
Moderate Friars
• Franciscan Toribio de Benavente or
Motolinia
– Realist or moderate
• Believed the encomienda was necessary for the
prosperity and security of the indies
• Phillip II,1556
– Encomenderos finally obtained the direct
unchallenged dominion over indigenous
peoples
Institutions of Conquest
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Mission, Presidio, Pueblo, Rancho
Encomienda
Repartimiento or mita
Slavery
– New political climate marked by a growing
belief in the constitutional inferiority of indigos
peoples
The Mission
• The Mission
– The Franciscans and
Other Mendicant
Orders
– Salvation in return for
labor
The Mission (1986)
–The Jesuit missionary Father Gabriel (Jeremy Irons)
with the Guaraní´ Indians of Paraguay before their
slaughter by Portuguese troops.
© Warner Brothers/Courtesy Everett Collection
1573 Spanish Inquisition
• Persuasion
• Coercion
• Natives that
practiced
tradition were
charged with
heresy
• punished
– Hanged or
burned at the
stake
Legacy of Inquisition?
• Methods of repression continued by Totalitarian
Regimes & Police States
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Creation of racial & religious Ghettos
Forcible wearing of badges of shame
Formal state & religious propaganda
Spying
Seizure of property
Intimidation & torture
Sexual humiliation
Good cop/bad cop routine
Physical restraint
Separation of families
• No recognition of natural or civil rights
• Threat and repression of Humanity
Moral Decline of the Clergy
• Missionary fervor declined
– Concern with the accumulation of material
wealth weakened the ties between the clergy
and the humble masses.
– exploitation of native labor
• viceroy of New Spain, Marques de
Monteclaros, (1607)
– indigenous people suffered the heaviest
oppression at the hands of the friars,
– concubine
Wards of the Friars
• Francis Guest
– As is commonly known, Spanish law made
the missionaries the legal guardians of
their Indian converts.
– In virtue of their conversion and baptism
the neophytes became the wards of the
friar
• Lands confiscated
• Neophytes became property of the friars
Components of the Mission
System: the Pueblo
• The Pueblo
– Agricultural Towns
– Indian Labor
– Hope to Decrease
Reliance on Mexico
and Missions
Components of the Mission
System: the Presidio
The Presidio
• Forts to Protect the
Mission
• Garrisons Return
Fugitives
• Garrisons Capture
New Neophytes
• Four Built
• Weak Militarily
Components of the Mission
System: the Rancho
The Rancho
– Mission Herds
– Use Indian Labor
– Major Source of
Wealth in Mission
System
– Give Missions
Power over
Spanish
Government
Forced System of Labor
• Excessive confining work
– Brick Manufacture
• Men made adobe bricks
• Women aided in transporting bricks & tiles
– Weaving lucrative for the mission
• Women & Children employed in processing wool
and weaving
– Evidence of piece rate system, paid “in kind”
18th C Perspectives
• French Explorer Jean Francois Galaup
Comte de La Perouse
– Likened the Indians of Mission San Carlos in
1786 to the Slaves of Santo Domingo
• Descriptions lf serious charges of cruelty
– George Vancouver Expeditions
– Naturalist Archibald Menzies, 1792
– Documents & letters authored by military
authorities in 1785 & cited by George
Bancroft
Native Resistance
“Cooperation”
Passive Resistance
Fugitivism
Active Resistance
Revolt
Homicide
Raids on livestock
Revitalization
Resistance
• Indians attacking
Priests and setting fire
To their houses
Theodor de Bry
(1528 – 1598)
Indigenous Women
• They enjoyed economic importance as
producers and traders of goods
– owned property in their own right, litigated
• countered male abuse
– mobilization of kin to witchcraft,
• played leading roles in the organization o
resistance
– study of 142 native rebellions in colonial
Mexico, William Taylor notes the highly visible
role of women
• aggressive, Insulting and rebellious.
Impact of the Mission System
and Spanish Settlement
Land
Population
Culture
Mission Santa Barbara
Church and Education
• Monopoly of colonial education at all levels
– Privilege of upper class Spanish and
indigenous nobility
• Universities of Lima and Mexico City were
chartered by the crown in 1551
– Theology and law were chief disciplines
• Contributions: fields of indigenous history,
anthropology, linguistics, natural history
Church Censorship
• imprisonment, torture and death for
individuals who were charged with the
possession and reading of literature that
challenged royal or church doctrine
Sor Juana Ine´s
de la Cruz
•The convent
provided a means of
achieving self
expression and
freedom from male
domination and
sexual exploitation fro
elite and middle-class
women
•17th C 13 convents in
Lima
–20% of city’s women
© Schalkwijk/Art Resource, NY
Toward a New Political Order
and Global Conflict
 What do historians mean by the term
enlightened absolutism?
 To what degree did 18th C Prussia,
Austria and Russia exhibit
characteristics
Prussia
• Fredrick II “The Great”
– Maintained rigid social structure and Serfdom
– Enlarged the military
– High posts – hereditary elite
• Reforms:
– Abolished torture with exception of treason
and murder cases
– Limited freedom of speech and press
– Religious toleration
Austria - Hapsburgs
• Empress Maria Theresa
– Growth & modernization of military
• Joseph II reforms:
– Abolished serfdom
– Abrogated the death penalty
– Established principle of equality of all before
the law
– Religious reform & toleration
– (alienated nobility & the church – many
reversals)
Russia under Catherine the
Great (1762-1796)
• No reforms
• 1785 charter exempted nobility
from taxes
• Military expansion
• Declining conditions of
peasants