Transcript 2. แสดงรายการเกี่ยวกับการบิน (Aeronautical Symbols)

2. แสดงรายการเกี่ยวกับการบิน
(Aeronautical Symbols)
1.
Aerodrome Information
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Radio Facilities : Beacons, Control Tower Frequencies,
VOR, ILS
Aeronautical Lights
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Characteristics
Traffic Control Boundaries
Instrument Landing Aids
White – Green :Civil Airfield
2 White – Green : Mil Airfield
White – Yellow : Water airfield
White – red : significant land mark
Miscellaneous : Caution, Danger area, Isogonics Lines
Scale
• Scale = Chart Length / Earth Length
– Small Scale : Large Area Less Detail
• 1:600,000 or smaller
– Middle Scale
• Bigger than 1:600,000 but smaller than 1:75,000
– Large Scale : Small Area More Detail
• 1:75,000 and bigger
• Distance : measure between parallel of latitude
by measuring meridian
– 1 minute = 1 NM.
Plotting and Measuring
• Basic operations in Dead Reckoning.
• Plotting is the location of points or courses
on chart by their coordinates of latitude
and longitude.
• Measuring is the determination of distance
and direction between points on a chart.
• Tools: pencil, eraser, dividers, and plotter
Plotter
• A device for drawing and measuring courses
and distances
• Weems Aircraft Plotter Mark II, MK IIN
• The principal use of a plotter is the
measurement of true course, which is line on a
chart representing the path over which the
aircraft to travel.
• Its direction is determined by the angle it make
with the meridians, which run north and south
Plotter
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Straight edge aligned with True Course (TC)
Center hole over meridian or parallel
Scale indicated by arrow
Read direction on scale over meridian or parallel
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A course between 0º and 180º is measured along the
outer scale;
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A course between 180º and 360º is measured along the
inner scale
5. It is wise to estimate the direction roughly prior to
exact measurement as “a commonsense check”
Plotting and Measuring on a
Lambert Chart
• The graticule of a Lambert chart, is
characterized by converging meridians.
• The error will be at a maximum for east-west
courses and at a minimum for north – south
courses
• For distance of 200-300 miles, it is
advantageous to make one course
measurement for entire route at mid-longitude;
• For longer runs it is wiser to break the course
into segments, changing to new course with
each new segment encountered
Plotting and Measuring on a
Lambert Chart
• On Lambert charts the plotters may be
convenient than dividers as a means of
measuring distance.
• Since the Lambert charts was seen to be
uniformity of scale over rather large areas
• Hence, dividers spanned to 100 miles on
one Lambert would measure 100 miles on
any part of any Lambert of the same scale
Plotting and Measuring on a
Mercator Chart
• On a Mercator, meridians are parallel lines. Any straight
line cutting them will be a transversal, cutting across each
at the same angle.
• Direction from true north may be measured accurately at
any meridian and not only at mid-longitude as on a
Lambert.
• Scale of distance on a Mercator is constantly changing.
The scale along any Mercator course is relatively
contracted on the portion nearest the equator, and
expanded toward the pole.
• The true Mercator distance of the entire course can be
measured only against a scale chosen along a portion of
course where an average scale exists.
Chapter 4
Words for Air Navigation
• Track (TR) is the actual horizontal direction made by the
aircraft over the earth (due to wind) or actual path
• Course (C) is the intend horizontal direction or travel. There
are TC, MC, CC (Compass Course) = Track Made Good
– True Course (TC) : The intended or actual path over the ground
measured from true north
• Heading (HDG) is the horizontal direction in which the A/C
is pointed. There are TH, MH, CH
– True Heading (TH): the direction from true north in which the
aircraft is pointed
• Ground Speed (GS) Speed in relation to a fixed point on
the earth. Knots, MPH, km/hr
• True Airspeed (TAS) Speed of an aircraft through a mass
of air
Wind and Wind Effect
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Wind has direct and speed
Wind direction “from”
The lateral displacement effected by wind is “drift”,
The angle between intended and actual track is
“drift angle”
• The number of degrees that an aircraft is turn into
wind in order to fly a desired path over the ground
is called “ the drift-correction angle”
• The drift-correction angle is the same as drift
angle but opposite direction
• In making a drift correction, the pilot has not
prevented drift but corrected for it.
Vectors and the Wind Triangle
In Dead Reckoning there are six basic measures
with concerned:
1. True Air Speed (TAS): Speed of an aircraft
through a mass of air
2. True Heading (TH): The direction from true north
in which the aircraft is pointed
3. &4. Wind Direction / Velocity (W/V)
5. Ground Speed (GS) Speed in relation to a fixed
point on the earth.
6. True Course (TC) : The intended or actual path
over the ground measured from true north
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The six measures listed always pair
together as the following vectors:
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Wind Direction – Wind Speed
True Heading – True Air Speed
True Course – Ground Speed
Wind Determination
• Forecast Winds:
– Winds are measured and predicted by weather experts
(Balloons and analysis of pressure system)
– Winds at flying altitudes for use in planning a flight
– Winds change with altitude and with the nature of the
terrain over which they pass
• Direct Observation: at altitude of a few throusand
feet , wind direction can sometimes be checked by
watching smoke plumes; over water, by the
washback of foam from whitecaps. The number of
whitecaps is also an indication of wind speed.
– Winds change in both speed and direction with altitude
– The passage of cloud shadows across the ground is
usable at times as a check on wind direction
– In fast, high flying aircraft none of these devices is value
Wind Determination
• Winds Between Two Positions : it is average
wind between two position
– The average True Heading (TH) and True Airspeed
(TAS) derived from the aircraft’s instruments,
– The Ground Speed (GS) and Drift Angle, are entered
on the wind face of the computer and unknown wind
vector is solved
• Drift Angle is the difference between Track (TR)
and TH ; if TH is greater, drift is left, if TR is
greater, drift is right
Wind Triangle
1. Air Vector (Air Plot)
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TH : direction of the vector
TAS: magnitude of the vector
2. Wind Vector (W/V)
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Wind Direction
Speed
The tail of wind vector always connected to
the head of the air vector.
3. Cross Vector or Ground Vector
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GS: Ground Speed
TR: Track
Air Vector
Track-Ground Speed
• Drift Angle is the difference between Track
(TR) and TH ; if TH is greater, drift is left, if
TR is greater, drift is right
TH 360º
TR 350º
Drift Angle 5ºL
TH is greater, drift is left
TH 360º
TR 005º
Drift Angle 5ºR
TR is greater, drift is right
TN
TH:045º
TR / GS
Wind from
330
•Any distance between the ground position and air position must
represent wind effect
•An arrow drawn from air position to ground position will be a wind
vector
Dead Reckoning Computer
• Dalton E-6B/MB-4
Line Of Position (LOP)
• LOP is a line connecting all possible geographic
positions of an aircraft at a given instant
• The line can be straight or curved, depending on
the source of information:
– A true bearing from a mountain peak will be a Straight
line Of Position;
– Distance from an object will be a circle of radius equal to
the distance
– Lines of position determined by loran are hyperbolas
Fix
• A fix is an established geographic position
of an aircraft for a given instant time. It is a
point, not a line.
• A fix can be found only by crossing two or
more LOP’s independently determined
• Any two LOP’s intersecting at an angle
greater than 30º will normally provide
reliable fixing, the best results are
obtained when they cross at right angles
Altitude
• Indicated Altitude: is read directly from altimeter when it is
directly adjusted to the local altimeter setting
• Pressure Altitude: is displayed on altimeter when it is set to
the standard sea level atmospheric pressure of 29.92 in.Hg
– At or above transition altitude
– Called Flight Level
• Density Altitude: is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard
temperature used to determine aircraft performance
• True Altitude: is the actual height of an object above mean sea
level
– True altitude and Pressure Altitude are equal only when
standard atmospheric condition exist
• Absolute Altitude: is the actual height of the airplane above
the earth’s surface
– Height above ground level (AGL)
– Height Above Airport (HAA)
– Height Above Touch Down Zone (HAT)
– Threshold Crossing Height (TCH)
Altitude
• 1 inch Hg = 1,000 ft
• 1 mb = 30 ft
• When flying from high to low (Press), or
hot to cold , look out below.
Navigation Technique
สิ่ งที่ต้องทำควำมเข้ ำใจก่ อนทำกำรบิน
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กำรบินอย่ ำงถูกต้ อง
กำรวำงแผน
สมรรถนะของเครื่องบิน
กำรคำนวณ
กำรวิเครำะห์ และอ่ำนแผนที่
กำรใช้ วทิ ยุ และเครื่องช่ วยเดินอำกำศ
กำรบินอย่ ำงถูกต้ อง
• Heading +/- 2°
• Speed +/- 5 % ของ TAS
• Altitude +/- 200 feet
กำรวำงแผนก่ อนกำรบิน
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กำรเตรียมแผนที่
รำยละเอียดของเส้ นทำงบิน
ข่ ำวอำกำศ
กำรคำนวณหำค่ ำต่ ำงๆ ตำม Flight plan
กำรคำนวณนำ้ มัน
กฎกำรบินต่ ำงๆ
กำรเขียน Flight log
กำรเตรียมแผนที่
• ถ้ ำบินเดินทำงตำ่ ควรใช้ แผนที่มำตรำส่ วนใหญ่
• ถ้ ำบินเดินทำงสู ง ควรใช้ แผนทีม่ ำตรำส่ วนเล็ก
• มำตรำส่ วนเล็ก เช่ น 1: 600,000 จะคลุมพืน้ ทีไ่ ด้ มำกแต่ มีรำยละเอียด
น้ อย
• มำตรำส่ วนใหญ่ เช่ น 1: 75,000 จะคลุมพืน้ ทีไ่ ด้ น้อยแต่ มีรำยละเอียด
ปลีกย่ อยมำก
• ดังนั้นแผนที่ที่มีขนำดเท่ ำกัน แผนทีม่ ำตรำส่ วนเล็กจะคลุมพืน้ ทีไ่ ด้
มำก ส่ วนแผนทีม่ ำตรำส่ วนใหญ่ จะคลุมพืน้ ทีไ่ ด้ น้อย
1: 1,000,000
1 : 250,000
1. ลำก Track และจุด Reporting Points
2. วัดระยะทาง ทิศทางของ Track ที่จะบินไป และ
หา Variation ตามเส้นทางที่ผา่ น
• Variation
มุมทีต่ ่ ำงกันระหว่ ำง True
North กับ Magnetic
North
3. หาพื้นที่ Prohibited, Restricted และ
Danger Areas ที่มีผลต่อเส้นทางบิน
4.คานวณหา Safety Height ในเส้นทางบินกรณี ที่
ต้องลดระยะสูง เมื่อบินในลักษณะอากาศที่เป็ น IMC
• It is suggested that you cross mountain
passes at an altitude at least 1,000 feet
above the pass elevation.
• The cloud clearance requirement is at
least 1,000 feet below the clouds.
• You should make sure that you have at
least a 2,000 foot ceiling over the highest
pass you will cross
สัญลักษณ์ บนแผนที ่
• TURNING POINT
• INFORMATION BLOCK
350
0:45
Magnetic Heading
3500
Estimate Time Interval
Safety Height (RED)
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23
Calculated Fuel Remaining
Actual Fuel Remaining
• POSITION REPORTING POINTS
TAKHLI
ATA
ETA
• DISTANCE MARKER
– 10 NM interval (Normally on the right side)
40
30
20
10
• CHECK POINTS
– จุดทีใ่ ช้ ตรวจสอบการบินว่ าถูกต้ องเพียงใด
– ควรเลือกจุดทีม่ องเห็นได้ ชัดทั้งด้ านซ้ ายและด้ านขวา
ของ Track เขียนวงกลมรอบจุดนั้น เพื่อสังเกตได้ ง่าย
CHECK POINT
ATA
ETA
Magnetic Heading
15 ATA
ETA
Estimate Time Interval
Safety Height
10
Calculated Fuel Remaining
5
Actual Fuel Remaining
Check Point
ATA
ETA
10
Magnetic Heading
Estimate Time Interval
Safety Height
Calculated Fuel Remaining
Actual Fuel Remaining
5
Magnetic Heading
Estimate Time Interval
Safety Height
Calculated Fuel Remaining
Actual Fuel Remaining
10
5