Transcript ch 12
Human Adjustment
John W. Santrock
Chapter 12:
Gender
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Chapter Outline
Perspectives on Gender
Gender Comparisons
Women’s and Men’s Lives
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Learning Goals
1. Define gender and explain evolutionary, social, and
cognitive theories of gender
2. Discuss gender comparisons and classifications
3. Characterize women’s and men’s lives
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PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER
Defining Gender
Evolutionary Psychology Theory
Social Theories
Cognitive Theories
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Defining Gender
Gender = the psychological and social dimension of
being female or male
Gender roles = sets of expectations that prescribe how
females or males should act, think, or feel
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Evolutionary Psychology Theory
Evolutionary psychology theory - because of their
differing roles in reproduction, adaptation during the
evolution of humans produced psychological
differences between males and females
– Multiple sexual liaisons improves likelihood males will pass
on their genes
– Females’ contributions to gene pool was improved by
securing resources for offspring
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Social Theories of Gender
Social role theory - gender differences result from the
contrasting roles of women and men
– In most cultures, women have less power and status than
men and they control fewer resources
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Social Theories of Gender
Psychoanalytic theory - preschool children develop
sexual attraction to opposite-sex parent, then renounce
attraction because of anxious feelings, and
subsequently identify with same-sex parent
Social cognitive theory - children’s gender
development occurs through observation and imitation,
and through rewards and punishments for gender
appropriate and inappropriate behavior
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Cognitive Theories of Gender
Cognitive developmental theory - children’s gender
typing occurs after they think of themselves as boys
and girls
Gender schema theory - gender typing emerges as
children gradually develop gender schemas of what is
gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their
culture
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Review - Learning Goal 1
– How can these two terms be defined: gender and gender
roles?
– What is the evolutionary psychology theory of gender
differences?
– What are three social theories of gender?
– What are two cognitive theories of gender?
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GENDER COMPARISONS
Gender Stereotypes
Gender Similarities and Differences
Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
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Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes = general beliefs about females
and males
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Gender Stereotypes
Broverman looked at traits that college students in the
1970s believed were characteristic of males and
females
Instrumental traits were associated with males independent, aggressive, power-oriented
Expressive traits were associated with females being warm and sensitive
– These traits are unequal in terms of social states and power
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Stereotyping and Culture
Research study in 1982 found stereotyping of females
and males prevalent in thirty countries
– Males were believed to be dominant, independent,
aggressive, achievement oriented, and enduring
– Females were believed to be nurturing, affiliative, less
esteemed, and more helpful in times of distress
More recently, traditional gender stereotypes and
gender roles have been challenged, and social
inequalities between men and women have diminished
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Gender Stereotypes and Ethnicity
We have stereotypes of age as well as gender
We have stereotypes of gender and ethnicity
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Sexism
Sexism = prejudice and discrimination against
an individual because of his or her sex
Prejudice and discrimination against women has a long
history
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Physical Similarities and Differences
There are many physical differences between males
and females
– Females have a longer life expectancy than males
– Males have higher levels of stress hormones
– Some brain differences have been found between males
and females
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Cognitive Similarities and Differences
Some research suggests boys are better at math and
science
Girls are better students, and significantly better in
reading
Janet Hyde (2004) argues that cognitive differences
between females and males are exaggerated
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Socioemotional Similarities and Differences
Boys are more physically aggressive than girls
Girls are as verbally aggressive as boys
Girls show more relational aggression (behaviors such
as spreading rumors)
Males usually show less self-regulation of emotions
and behavior than females
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Interpretation of Gender Differences
Traditionally, differences between males and females
were interpreted as biologically-based deficiencies in
females
Feminists fear research finding differences will promote
stereotypes that women are inferior to men
Alice Eagly argues this fear has biased research
interpretation
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Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Androgyny = presence of a high degree of feminine
and masculine characteristics in the same individual
Sandra Bem (1974) developed the Bem Sex-Role
Inventory to measure androgyny
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Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Individuals can be classified as having one of four
gender-role orientations on Bem’s scale:
– androgynous
– feminine
– masculine
– undifferentiated
Androgynous women and men are more flexible and
more mentally healthy than either masculine or
feminine individuals
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Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Gender-role transcendence = thinking about
ourselves and others as people, not as
masculine, feminine, or androgynous
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Review - Learning Goal 2
– What is gender stereotyping and how extensive is it?
– What are some physical, cognitive, and socioemotional
differences in gender?
– What are some alternatives to classifying behavior and
traits as masculine or feminine?
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WOMEN’S AND MEN’S LIVES
Women’s Lives
Men’s Lives
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Women’s Lives
In much of the world, people’s lives are governed by
traditional gender roles that assign a subordinate
status to women
– In politics, especially in developing countries, women are
treated as burdens rather than assets
– Women’s work around the world is more limiting and narrow
than men’s
Canada, the United States, and Russia have the
highest percentages of educated women
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Ethnic Minority Women in the United States
For Asian-American women, gender roles found in the
mainstream clash with traditions of ancestors
African-American women take time for consideration
before solving problems
Mexican women assume the expressive role of
homemaker and caretaker of children
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Psychological Health
U.S. women face some special stressors because they
are women:
– domestic violence
– rape
– sexism
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Psychological Health
Although men have increased involvement in family
roles, women still bear the largest burden for
housework and childcare, even when they work
outside the home
Women have more dissatisfaction with their bodies
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Adjustment Strategies
for Women
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1. Recognize your competencies
2. Pay attention to developing your self as well as your
relationship
3. Don’t put up with sexism
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Men’s Lives - Ethnic Minority Males
African-American men are more likely to live in poverty
Asian cultural values are reflected in traditional,
patriarchal Chinese and Japanese families
Mexican men traditionally assume role of provider, with
exaggerated masculinity and aggression
Some Native American tribes are patriarchal
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Role Strain
Men face role strain because male roles are
contradictory and inconsistent
Men’s roles can cause strain in areas such as:
– health
– male-female relationships
– male-male relationships
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Adjustment Strategies for Men
1. Understand yourself and your emotions
2. Improve your social relationships
3. Lower your health risks
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Review - Learning Goal 3
– What are characteristics of women’s lives?
– What are characteristics of men’s lives?
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