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Transport Canada
Quebec Region
Civil Aviation
Transports Canada
Région du Québec
Aviation civile
Sophie Lanoix
System Safety Specialist
System Safety
700 Leigh Capreol
Dorval QC H4Y 1G7
Tel.: 514 633-2967
Fax: 514 633-3705
E-mail: lanoixs @ tc.gc.ca
Flying: Risk Factors
and Decision Making
 Personal Minimums Checklist
 Risk factors
Pilot
Aircraft
enVironment
External pressures
Why?
 Humans make mistakes.
 70-85% of all aircraft accidents and
incidents are due to human factors.
Most accidents and incidents occur
because the pilot failed to consider one
or more critical factors during the preflight planning phase.
Those Most Likely to be
Involved in an Accident:
 are between 35 and 39 years of age;
 have between 100 and 500 flight hours;
 are on a personal flight;
 are under visual flight rules (VFR).
Phase of Flight Exposure vs.
Accidents
Percentage of Exposure Time (per flight)
16%
60%
Takeoff
and climb
Cruise
22%
17%
24%
Descent, approach and
landing
61%
Percentage of Accidents (per phase of flight)
NASA Survey
Percentage of respondents who said:
“Our fist mistake was in the…”
10%
63%
Pre-flight planning phase
Start up, taxi, pre-takeoff
phases
27%
All other phases of flight
Accidents where time factor was reported
Personal Minimums Checklist
Your personal minimum
checklist ensures that you
recognize and manage all
risk factors that can
influence your flight.
Personal Minimums Checklist
 The decision to carry out a flight is based
on the pilot’s personal and safety criteria,
which are adapted to the situation.
 The regulations are minimums and do not
account for the differences between
pilots.
Personal Minimums Checklist
 Identify risk factors for each flight.
 Determine methods for controlling each
of the risk factors.
Personal Minimums Checklist
 Not all items will apply to every flight;
no checklist can cover every situation.
 Remember that your checklist should
be updated periodically.
Risk Factors
There are 4 categories of risk factors:
Pilot
Aircraft
enVironment
External Pressures
Pilot
Examples of questions to ask yourself:
 How current am I?
 Am I well rested?
 Am I familiar with the type of airspace I will be
flying in?
 Do I have experience with the terrain?
Training, Knowledge
and Experience
A lack of:
 Training and knowledge
 Experience
 Recency and proficiency
will increase:
 Workload
 Reaction time
 Errors
CARs
401.05 and
421.05
Procedures
Do you know the most upto-date operational
procedures and the current
regulations?
Beware of Overconfidence
Overconfidence in a pilot occurs when they are
lulled into a sense of self-satisfaction
accompanied by:
 a failure to recognize changes in their
situation; or
 a failure to assess the actual dangers or
deficiencies in their situation.
Avoiding Overconfidence
 Do thorough pre-flight planning.
 Anticipate and continually assess the
situation.
 Stay busy: pre-plan, file a PIREP,
think about the “What ifs . . .”
 Always have an escape route (an
alternate plan of action or a plan “B”).
Fatigue
A fatigued pilot:
 is susceptible to visual and kinaesthetic illusions
and has a reduced field of vision;
 may forget or ignore checks and procedures;
 is easily distracted and fixates on details;
 is easily preoccupied;
 has limited situational awareness;
 exhibits poor communication skills;
 is likely to doze off.
Preventing Fatigue




Get 8 hours of sleep if possible.
If you are unable to fall asleep in 30 minutes, get up.
Take a power nap, if possible (45 minutes max.).
Stay in good physical condition (aerobic) and eat
sensibly.
 Avoid using artificial stimulants, sleep aids, alcohol
and tobacco.
 Drink enough water.
Preventing In-Flight Fatigue
If you are fatigued while flying:
 ventilate the cockpit;
 engage in constructive conversation;
 file a PIREP with ATS;
 review emergency procedures;
 think about the “What ifs ?” and your plan “B”;
 move around.
Fitness of Flight Crew
Members (CAR 602.02)
No operator of an aircraft shall require any person
to act as a flight crew member and no person
shall act as a flight crew member, if either the
person or the operator has any reason to believe,
having regard to the circumstances of the
particular flight to be undertaken, that the person
(a) is suffering or is likely to suffer from fatigue; or
(b) is otherwise unfit to perform properly the person's
duties as a flight crew member.
Diet
Simple
Carbohydrates
Blood Sugar
Level
High
Low
Complex
Carbohydrates
Danger Zone
Time
Alcohol:
 is a sedative;
 decreases the brain’s ability to use
oxygen;
 affects our senses;
 affects our judgement;
 distorts our perception.
The effects of alcohol are increased in altitude
because the partial pressure of oxygen is decreased.
Alcohol vs. Senses
 Reduction in visual and auditory sharpness.
 Susceptibility to visual illusions.
 Susceptibility to vestibular illusions (internal
ear).
 Loss of balance.
Alcohol vs. Judgment
Alcohol impairs our judgment by:
 increasing our reaction time;
 clouding our memory;
 making us accept a higher level of risk
than normal;
 making us underestimate the risks
involved.
Alcohol vs. Judgment
The most serious
effect of alcohol is
that we are unable to
judge our own
impairment.
Alcohol vs. Metabolism
 Alcohol is a diuretic…a hangover is
the result of dehydration.
 Alcohol disrupts sleep patterns,
causing fatigue.
 Alcohol that accumulates in the inner
ear remains longer than the alcohol
that accumulates in the rest of the
body.
Alcohol vs. Metabolism
Even after alcohol is completely
eliminated from the body, the
effects can last for 48 to 72
hours
CAR 602.03
after the last drink.
Illness and Medication
 Medication covers up symptoms, but does not
cure the underlying problem.
 Always consult a Civil Aviation Medical
Examiner.
 Educate yourself on the side effects of
prescription and over-the-counter medications.
 Before flying, wait double the recommended
amount of time between doses.
Stress vs. Performance
High
Performance
Peak Performance
Danger
Medium
Performance
Low
performance
Low
Stress
Medium
Stress
High
Stress
Stress Management
 Identify, recognize and manage
stressors.
 Get sufficient rest, proper nutrition and
exercise.
 Check your attitude, sense of humour
and emotional state.
Stress Management
Be pro-active towards stressors:
 Know all the elements…
 Keep the big picture in mind . . . what is
the worst-case scenario?
 Communicate your problems to people
who can help.
Three Human Factors Books
from Transport Canada
1 800 305-2059
http://www.tc.gc.ca/CivilAviation/communications/publications.htm
Coffee Break
The three most useless
things to a pilot:
The altitude above you,
the runway behind you, and
a tenth of a second ago.
Aircraft
Examples of questions to ask yourself:
 Is the aircraft adequately equipped?
 Does the aircraft have any maintenance
problems?
 What are the aircraft performances?
 What is the aircraft’s fuel consumption?
Airworthiness
Make sure your aircraft is airworthy:
 Check all aircraft documents.
 Do a complete walk-around.
 Make sure weight and balance is within
the limits.
Time in Your Tanks...
 Calculate the amount of fuel you burn
from engine start up to engine shut
down, plus required reserves.
 Do not rely on a forecasted tailwind;
anticipate headwinds.
 Be conscientious about your “howgoes-it” checkpoints!!
CAR 602.88
Every aircraft shall carry an amount of
fuel that is sufficient to provide for:
 taxiing and foreseeable delays prior to
takeoff;
 meteorological conditions;
 foreseeable air traffic routings and traffic
delays;
CAR 602.88
 landing at a suitable aerodrome in the event of
loss of cabin pressurization or, in the case of a
multi-engined aircraft, failure of any engine, at
the most critical point during the flight; and
 any other foreseeable conditions that could
delay the landing of the aircraft.
 Plus a reserve supply of at least:
 day VFR: 30 min
 night VFR: 45 min
Competency and
Experience on Type
Are you up-to-date on the aircraft you intend to fly?
How is your:
 flying ability (hands and feet);
 knowledge of the aircraft;
 knowledge of the emergency procedures.
Keep yourself current on aircraft systems, their
limits and operational procedures
Practical Knowledge
Static simulation is a cheap and
effective means of familiarizing or refamiliarizing yourself with the
aircraft's controls, instruments,
avionics and checklist procedures.
Practical Knowledge
 Take the time to practice flight
manoeuvres.
 An occasional or, even better, annual
flight with an instructor is invaluable.
 Develop your automatism!
Aircraft Performance
Performances and fuel consumption
indicated in the pilot operating handbook
(POH) have been calculated in ideal
circumstances:
 a new aircraft;
 an experienced test pilot;
 maximum performances;
 optimal weather conditions.
Aircraft Performance
Be conservative!
Add a percentage to your performance
calculations:
 take-off distance;
 obstacle clearance and climb;
 landing distance.
When flight planning, ensure that you are using the
authorized documentation for your individual aircraft
Aircraft Equipment
 Communication/Navigation:
 required for the airspace you will be
flying in;
 familiarity with the equipment.
 Clothing and survival equipment:
 appropriate for the season and the area.
Maintenance
 Are you maintaining your aircraft
yourself?
 Is your mechanic an aircraft
maintenance engineer (AME)?
 Are all the parts approved for aviation
(no bogus parts)?
Avionics
 Avionics technology is changing
rapidly.
 Be aware that GPS receivers have
different control functions,
programming procedures and data
displays.
The time to learn how to operate the system is
when you are on the ground, not in the air!!
Environment
Examples of questions to ask yourself:
 What will the weather be at destination?
 Will it be a day flight or a night flight?
 What terrain is involved?
 Is the runway in good condition?
Airport Conditions
 Prepare your approach as part of your preflight planning, check NOTAMs.
 If you are unfamiliar with the airport, look at
the diagram in the CFS or the CAP plate.
 Call ahead, airport/runway conditions vary
based on the weather and season.
 Follow special procedures set out in the
CFS.
Noise
Circuit
Airspace
 Know the area radio frequencies and
monitor them.
 Familiarize yourself with transition
routes and reporting points.
 Look for, and monitor, other aircraft in
the area.
Weather
 Check METARs, TAFs, FDs and GFAs.
 Assess any meteorological hazards
such as:
 reduced visibility, thunderstorms, wind
shear, icing, low ceilings etc.
 Familiarize yourself with local weather
trends.
Weather
 Determine how the weather will be
affecting your flight route and
duration.
 Avoid bad weather conditions.
Terrain
 Be familiar with obstacles and terrain.
 Charts, CFS:
 all the necessary information;
 up-to-date;
 organized.
External Pressures
Examples of questions to ask yourself:
 What outside forces are pushing me?
 Why am I making this trip?
 Am I pressed for time?
 What are the real consequences to my
decisions?
Time Pressure
 The more you feel pressed for time,
 the more you do things hastily,
the higher your chances of making
a mistake.
Time Pressure
Management
Do not put yourself under unnecessary
time pressure:
 Allow sufficient time for unforeseen
delays.
 Plan alternate means of travel to allow
for bad weather.
Time Pressure
Management
Do not rush:
 Use your checklist and stick to the
procedures.
 If you are interrupted, go three steps
back on the checklist or start at the
beginning!
Managing External
Pressures
 Beware of the effects of the “I have to get
there no matter what” syndrome.
 Always have a plan “B”;
 What is your way out?
Exaggerated
Exagerated
feeling
feeling of
of
emergency
emergency
 Set limits (fuel, weather, etc.) at which
you will turn around or divert.
Do not exceed your limits—Stick to them!!!
Peer and Passenger Pressures
 Do not ignore or minimize passenger
concerns before a flight.
 Give your passengers a thorough preflight briefing.
 Make use of all resources: ask
passengers to watch for traffic, read
maps and other publications.
Peer and Passenger Pressures
Make decisions based on facts
and your limitations.
Do not get yourself into situations
that you did not plan. Beware of
last minute, unplanned changes!
Do not take unnecessary
risks under pressure!!!
Personal Minimums Checklist
You need to commit to
using the checklist.
Make it a part of your
pre-flight routine and
have the discipline to
follow it through!!
Questions ?