Motivation

 Why did you decide to attend university?

 Why did you decide to come to class tonight?

 Why did you eat supper before (after) class?

 Why do you sit in the same spot as last week?

Essential Qualities of Motivational States  Emotional states are:  energizing (activate or arouse behaviours)  directive (guide behaviours towards goals/needs)  persistance (persist in behaviour until goals/needs met)  strength (motives differ in strength)  “Motivation involves goal-directed behaviour.”

Needs, Drives & Rewards

 Needs  states of deficiency  lead to goal-directed behaviours  failure to satisfy needs leads to psychological or physical damage (or death)  Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Needs, Drives & Rewards

 Drives  psychological states activated to satisfy needs  needs arousal (“physiological activation”)  arousal behavioural activation (to satisfy needs)  “If a behaviour consistently reduces a drive, it becomes a habit.”

Needs, Drives & Rewards

 Drives  psychological states activated to satisfy needs  needs arousal (“physiological activation”)  arousal behavioural activation (to satisfy needs)  “If a behaviour consistently reduces a drive, it becomes a habit.”  BUT … why do we do things that don’t satisfy biological needs?

Needs, Drives & Rewards

 Rewards  Freud - seek pleasure/avoid pain  pleasure is a primary motivator

Internal and External Motivation

 Internal (biological) Motivation  reflect needs essential for survival  “regulatory” motives  thirst  hunger  neurobiology  hormones  neurotransmitters  brain sites

Internal Motivation

 homeostatis  “tendency for body functions to maintain equilibrium”  negative feedback model  deviations from equilibrium detected  physiological responses  hypothalamus  i.e., sweating to cool off  i.e., shivering to warm up

 instrinsic - value or pleasure without direct biological goal  play  creativity

Internal Motivation

 Instincts  “unlearned, automatic actions triggered by external cues”  “produce an immediate impulse to act”  fixed-action pattern  facial expressions  many “instinctive” behaviours modified by learning  descriptive but not explanatory

External Motivation

 External (social) motives  “purposive” motives  extrinsic - external goal such as paycheque

External Motivation

 social needs depend upon experience:  can have unlimited number  acquired through learning & socialization  Tolman • “more highly motivated to obtain things of value” • “value determined to large extent by culture” • for example, Inuit and high pay

External Motivation

 social needs depend upon experience:  can be extrinsic  pay cheque  can be intrinsic  achievement  autonomy  affiliation

Learned Helplessness

 Self-efficacy  “expectancy that your efforts will lead to success”  learned helplessness - the belief that your actions will be futile

Arousal Theories of Motivation

 Yerkes-Dodson Law  optimal level of arousal  provides rationale for intrinsic behaviours such as dancing, listening to music, reading  contradicts “drive theories” where motivation hypothesized to tension/arousal

Arousal Theories of Motivation

 Berlyne  expanded Yerkes-Dodson Law  what is optimally arousing depends on initial level of arousal  if low levels of arousal, then novelty, complexity, uncertainty will (+) effect of arousal  if already at high arousal level, additional arousing events will be “aversive”

Berlyne

Hunger

 Does your stomach rumble when you are hungry?

 Do stomach contractions cause hunger?

Internal Motivation

 Hunger

Brain Regulation in Hunger

 Hypothalamus  lesions of lateral hypothalamus - little or no interest in eating  aphagia  lesions of ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus - excessive eating (could not recognize satiety?)  hyperphagia  blood levels of insulin fat storage

Brain Regulation in Hunger

 Orbitofrontal cortex  “processes info about the potential reward value of food”

Homeostatic Regulation

 Glucose (glucostatic theory)  specialized glucose receptors monitor extent glucose taken up by cells to be used for energy  Lipids (lipostatic theory)  set-point for body fat  deviations “initiate compensatory behaviours to return to homeostatis”

Homeostatic Regulation

 Leptin  hormone  released from fat cells in relation to amount of fat stored in those cells  acts on hypothalamus  slow-acting

External Motivations

 When did you eat lunch?  Where you hungry?

 Classical conditioning  hungry at mealtimes even though metabolic rates differ  food - related cues (sight and smell)  Learned preferences  observational learning

Genetic Predisposition

 Body mass index (ratio of body weight to height):  strongly related to biological parents NOT adoptive parents  Why, if body weight determined primarily by genetics, has percentage of North Americans who are obese increased dramatically in the past few decades?

Genetic Predisposition

 Genetics = can you become obese  predisposition  set-point  Environment = will you become obese

External (Social) Motivations for Overeating

 Positive (?) in developing nations:  improved health  Social status symbol  Negative (Western world)  lower socioeconomic status  social conditioning

Food Addictions

 Anorexia nervosa  Bulimia nervosa

Neural Systems in Motivation

 Hypothalamus  physiological responses  controls autonomic and endocrine systems  maintain homeostasis

Neural Systems in Motivation

 Prefrontal Cortex

Prefrontal Cortex

 Formulating goals, executing behaviours to reach goals, tracking progress and modifying strategies as needed

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex

 Selecting and initiating actions  working memory  compare current with past and future  temporal organization  what steps do you need to take in what order

2-Back Working Memory

Orbitofrontal Cortex

 “planning and coordinating behaviours designed to achieve goals”  processing emotional information for decision making  “coding reward values of different behavioural outcomes”  If involves reward then -

Orbitofrontal Cortex

 “planning and coordinating behaviours designed to achieve goals”  processing emotional information for decision making  “coding reward values of different behavioural outcomes”  If involves reward then - dopamine!

Anterior Cingulate

 Located in PFC but also considered part of limbic system  directing attention to essential stimuli  activated during novel tasks, more complex tasks, tasks involving personal choices  “processing mood-relevent information”

Motivation and Emotion

 Links between frontal lobes and limbic system  orbitofrontal cortex and ______

Motivation and Emotion

 Links between frontal lobes and limbic system  orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala  somatic marker theory (Damasio)  when think of an outcome emotional reaction (dependent on past experience)  emotional reactions promote survival and reproduction

Somatic Marker Theory

 Anticipate of desired event etc. Pleasurable emotional states behaviour designed to acquire that object, event etc.  “Anticipation of negative emotions motivates us to avoid other situations.”

Sleep

Science,

279, 91-95. Images Courtesy of Allen R. Braun, NIH.

Emotions, Stress & Coping

 Are women more emotional than men?

Emotions vs Expression

 Emotions  innate basis  Expression  cultural  display rules

Adaptive Role for Emotions

 Interpersonal relations  facial/nonverbal expressions  communicate mood, reaction  strengthens emotional bonds

Adaptive Role for Emotions

 Interpersonal Emotional Bonds:  guilt  discourages inappropriate behaviours and encourages appropriate ones  demonstration of bond /b/ individuals  influence tactic to manipulate behaviour  more environmental than genetic

Adaptive Role for Emotions

 Interpersonal Emotional Bonds:  embarrassment  “submission to and affiliation with the social group”  “recognition of unintentional social error”

Adaptive Role for Emotions

 Interpersonal Emotional Bonds:  jealousy  “sign of commitment to the relationship”

Adaptive Role for Emotions

 Cognitive functions  positive effect of good moods (dopamine levels) on cognitive tasks  good moods tend to use heuristic thinking  anticipated emotions guide decision making  emotions tend to have more impact on decisions than cognition - ex. Me and cruise liners  emotion biases attention  improved memory for emotional events

Components of Emotional Experiences

 Subjective component  Physiological component  Cognitive component

Subjective Component

 How you “feel”  types of emotions  primary  secondary

Primary/Secondary Emotions

 primary  evolutionarily adaptive  shared across cultures  associated with biological/physical states  anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, ?surprise, ?contempt

 secondary  blend of primary emotions  remorse, guilt, submission, anticipation

Circumplex model

 Dissociation of positive and negative affect  subjective level  “mixed feelings”  neurochemical level  positive emotions - dopamine  negative emotions - norepinephrine (vigilance and arousal)

Components of Emotional Experiences

 Subjective component  Physiological component  Cognitive component

Physiological Component

 Physiological changes correlated with emotions  Is there a causal relationship?

 Observational info  sweaty palms  physiological changes in actors’ displays of emotions  Facial feedback hypothesis

Components of Emotional Experiences

 Subjective component  Physiological component  Cognitive component

Physiological-Based Theory

Physiological & Cognitive Components - Act Independently

Physiological & Cognitive Components - Interactional Theory

Physiological & Cognitive Components - Interaction

 Misattribution of arousal source

Chris Lisle/Corbis.

Physiological & Cognitive Components - Interaction

 Misattribution of arousal source  excitation transfer  cognitive framing  learned helplessness

 Influence on cognitive “set” on emotional reaction:  p. 67

Physiological & Cognitive Components - Interaction

 Misattribution of arousal source  excitation transfer  cognitive framing  learned helplessness  counterfactual thinking  “act of imagining a possible alternative outcome that didn’t happen”  example of winning a silver medal

Mood Regulation

 Antecedent-focus  situation selection  situation modification  attentional deployment  cognitive change  Response-focus  response modulation

Response Modulation

 Effective:  Humor  release of endorphins  focused problem solving  distraction  Ineffective:  Suppression  rebound effect  Rumination

Neurophysiological Basis

 Physiological input  spinal cord injury patients report feeling less intense emotions  neurochemical input   dopamine = euphoria serotonin = lessen depression  anatomical structures

Anatomical Correlates

 Based on what you know so far, which structures would you expect to be involved?

Amygdala

 Processes emotional significance of stimuli  generates immediate reaction  evolved as protective mechanism emotional learning  classical conditioned fear responses  processing emotional content of facial expressions  damage leads to social impairments

Amygdala

 Possible gender differences  greater activation of left amygdala in women  greater activation of right amygdala in men

Orbitofrontal Cortex

 Assess potential reward value  process emotional cues  damage  insensitive to emotions of others  difficulties with emotional control  aggression/violence  fail to use somatic markers  no emotion when discussing emotional topics

Emotional Asymmetry

 Greater activation of right hemisphere associated with negative affect  prefrontal cortex  amygdala  lack of motivation  clinical depression  greater activation of left PFC associated with positive affect

Emotional Asymmetry

 Greater activation of left hemisphere associated with positive affect  left prefrontal cortex  increased confidence  increased effort to achieve goals  negative affective states (i.e., anxiety) may suppress left PFC

Emotional Asymmetry

 In general,  right hemisphere associated with:  interpretation and comprehension of emotional material (such as faces)  emotional tone of speech

Stress

 Fight - or - flight response  hypothalamus - pituitary activation  hormonal response  Tend - and - befriend response

General Adaptation Syndrome

 Read #4 on page 66

General Adaptation Syndrome

Coping Strategies

 Emotion-focused coping  designed to prevent emotional response  enable functioning when faced with uncontrollable stressor or high level of stress  includes  avoidance  minimizing problem  distancing oneself from outcomes  inappropriate strategies such as eating and drinking

Coping Strategies

 Problem-Focused Coping  when stressor is perceived as controllable  usually more effective over the long run  typically use both problem- and emotion focused coping