Intelligence

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Transcript Intelligence

Chapter Seven Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

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Did You Know That…

• • • Albert Einstein used visual imagery in developing his theory of relativity?

An apple is more quickly recognized as an “apple” than as a “fruit”?

Alexander Graham Bell used an analogy based on the human ear in developing the design for the first telephone?

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Did You Know That…

(cont.)

• • • A commonly used rule of thumb could lead you to make a bad decision of which movie to attend?

A gorilla participated in an online “chat”?

A psychological test can be reliable but not valid?

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Did You Know That…

(cont.)

• • A leading psychological theory of intelligence proposes not one, but many different intelligences?

The closer the genetic relationship between two people, the closer their IQ scores are likely to be?

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Module 7.1

Thinking

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Module 7.1 Preview Questions

• • • • • • What is cognitive psychology?

What is thinking?

What are the major types of concepts people use, and how are they organized?

What can we do to solve problems more efficiently?

How do cognitive biases influence decision making?

What cognitive processes underlie creative thinking?

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Cognitive Psychology

• • The branch of psychology that focuses on how we acquire knowledge about the world.

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What is Thinking?

• • The mental representation and manipulation of information.

Information is represented in the form of: – – – Images Words Concepts

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Mental Images

• • A mental picture or representation of an object or event.

Ability to hold and manipulate mental images aids with cognitive tasks.

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Figure 7.1: Mental Rotation: Are the Objects in Each Pair the Same or Different?

Objects in pairs

and

are the same; those in pair

are different.

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Concepts

• • Mental categories we use to group objects, events, and ideas according to their common features.

Functions – Helps bring a sense of order to the world.

– Makes us better able to anticipate or predict future events.

– Help us to respond more quickly to events.

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Types of Concepts

• • Logical Concepts: Has clearly defined rules for membership.

Natural Concepts: Membership rules are poorly defined or fuzzy.

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Figure 7.2: Hierarchy of Concepts

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How Do We Learn to Narrow and Refine Concepts?

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Problem Solving

• • Cognitive process using mental strategies to solve problems.

Insight believed to result from restructuring a problem.

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Figure 7.5: An Insight Problem

Source:

Metcalfe, J. (1986). Feelings of knowing in memory and problem solving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 12, 288-294. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

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Figure 7.6: Solution to the Insight Problem

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Problem-Solving Strategies

• • • • Algorithms: Step by step rules Heuristics: Rules of thumb – Backward-working heuristic – – Means-end heuristic Creating subgoals Analogies: Using knowledge from previously solved problems.

Incubation Periods: Putting the problem aside may help solve the problem.

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Roadblocks to Problem Solving

• • • Mental Set: Tendency to rely on strategies that worked well in similar situations.

Functional Fixedness: Inability to see how familiar objects can be used in new ways.

Irrelevant Information: Allowing irrelevant information to distract attention from necessary and relevant information.

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Figure 7.7: The Box Candle Problem

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Figure 7.10: Solution to the Box-Candle Problem

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Figure 7.8: The Two String Problem

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Figure 7.9: Solution to the Two-String Problem

Source:

Adapted from Maier, N. R. F. (1931). Reasoning in humans II: The solution of a problem and its appearance in consciousness. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 12, 181-194.

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Mental Roadblocks to Decision Making

• • • Decision Making: The selection of a course of action from among available alternatives.

Confirmation Bias: Tendency to stick to an initial hypothesis despite strong evidence to the contrary.

Representativeness Heuristic: Assume a given sample is representative of a population.

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Mental Roadblocks to Decision Making

• Availability Heuristic: Tendency to base decisions on information that readily comes to mind.

• Framing: Tendency for decisions to be influenced by how possibilities are phrased.

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Creativity

• • • Thinking in ways that lead to original, practical, meaningful solutions.

Divergent Thinking: Ability to conceive of new ways of viewing situations and new uses of familiar objects.

Convergent Thinking: The attempt to narrow down a range of alternatives to converge on the one correct answer to a problem.

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Figure 7.3: Two Interlocking Squares?

Source:

adapted from de Bono, E. (1970). Lateral thinking: Creativity step by step. New York: Harper & Row.

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Cognitive Processes Underlying Creativity

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Module 7.2

Language

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Module 7.2 Preview Questions

• • • • What are the major components of language?

How does language develop?

What is the linguistic relativity hypothesis?

Can nonhuman animals use language?

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What Is Language?

• A system of communication composed of symbols that are arranged according to a set of rules (grammar) to form meaningful expressions.

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Components of Language

• • • • Phonemes: Basic units of sound Morphemes: Smallest units of meaning Syntax: Rules of grammar that determine word ordering Semantics: Rules about meaning of words Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

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Milestones in Language Acquisition

• • • • • • Birth: crying 2 months: cooing 6-12 months: babbling 12 months: one-word phrases 18-24 months: two-word phrases 24-36 months: complex speech

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Language Acquisition Device

• • Noam Chomsky (1965): There is a innate mechanism “prewired” in the brain that allows language acquisition. – We have an inborn propensity to learn language.

Critics of language acquisition device notion: – – Not an actual physical structure.

Does not explain mechanisms by which language is produced.

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Culture and Language

• • Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: Language determines how we think and perceive reality.

– Also called the Whorfian hypothesis.

Research findings – – Language does not determine thought.

Language does appear to influence thought.

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Is Language Unique To Humans?

• • • Attempts to teach apes to communicate with humans.

Is this language or reinforced gestures?

Nonhumans do have complex communication systems.

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Module 7.3

Intelligence

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Module 7.3 Preview Questions

• • • • • What is intelligence, and how is it measured?

What constitutes a good intelligence test?

What are some examples of the misuse of intelligence tests?

What are some of the major theories of intelligence?

Is intelligence determined by heredity or environment?

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Defining Intelligence

• • What is intelligence?

– – – – Book or formal learning?

Street smarts?

Ability to solve problems?

Ability to adapt to the environment?

The capacity to think and reason clearly and to act purposefully and effectively in adapting to the environment and pursuing one’s goals.

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Measuring Intelligence: Binet-Simon Test

• • • • Binet commissioned by school officials in 1904 to measuring mental abilities of children.

Developed test consisting of memory tasks and other short tasks of problem solving.

Intelligence calculated by subtracting mental age from chronological age.

Stern’s intelligence quotient (IQ) – IQ = MA/CA x 100

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Measuring Intelligence: Wechsler Intelligence Tests

• • • Most widely used tests in U.S. and Canada Deviation IQ: 100 is average Types – Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence —Revised (WPPSI—R) – – Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III)

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Figure 7.14: Examples of Items Similar to Those on the WAIS-III

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Figure 7.14: Examples of Items Similar to Those on the WAIS-III

(cont.)

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Figure 7.15: Normal Distribution of IQ Scores

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Characteristics of a Good Test

• • • • Standardization: Process of establishing norms.

Reliability: Stability of test scores over time.

Validity: Degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure.

Predictive Validity: Degree to which test scores accurately predict future behavior or performance.

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Misuses of Intelligence Tests

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Figure 7.16: The Analogic Reasoning Test: A Culture-Fair Intelligence Test

Source:

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Extremes of Intelligence

• • Mental Retardation: Generalized deficit or impairment in intellectual and social skills.

– IQ of about 70 or below – – Difficulty coping with appropriate tasks Mainstreaming Intellectually Gifted: About 130 IQ or higher – Children may benefit from enriched educational programs.

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Theories of Intelligence: Spearman’s “g”

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Theories of Intelligence: Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

• Seven primary mental abilities – – – – – – – Verbal comprehension Numerical ability Memory Inductive reasoning Perceptual speed Verbal fluency Spatial relations

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Figure 7.18: Sternberg’s Triarchic Model of Intelligence

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Overview of Theories of Intelligence

• • Human intelligence consists of multiple abilities, if not multiple intelligences.

Must take into account the cultural context in which intelligent behavior occurs.

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IQ and Nature-Nurture Question

• • What causes differences in intelligence?

Is intelligence the product of – – Nature?

Nurture?

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Figure 7.19: Similarity and Intelligence

Source:

adapted from Plomin, R., & Petrill, S. A. (1997). Genetics and intelligence: What's new. Intelligence, 24, 53-57.

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IQ and Nature-Nurture Question

• • • Studying genetic relationships – – – Kinship studies Adoptee studies Heritability estimates (about 50%) Environmental influences – Verbal interaction, reading, exploration Both interact in complex ways

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Racial Differences in IQ

• • Claims of Arthur Jensen and The Bell Curve (Herrnstein & Murray) Contradictory findings: – – – – – Effects of formal enrichment programs Group differences versus individual potential Recent rise in IQ scores Cultural factors in test-taking Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

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Module 7.4

Application: Becoming a Creative Problem Solver

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Module 7.4 Preview Question

• What are the keys to becoming a creative problem solver?

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Adopt a Questioning Attitude

• • • • What alternatives are available?

What has worked in the past?

What hasn’t worked?

What can I do differently?

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Gather Information

• • Acquire information and resources.

Think critically about information you find.

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Avoid Mental Sets

• • • What am I required to do?

What type of problem is this?

What problem-solving strategy would work best?

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Generate Alternatives

• • • • Brainstorming – – – Write down many solutions Suspend judgment Seek unusual, remote, bizarre ideas Put list aside Find analogies Think outside the box Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

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Test It Out

• • • Try out possible solutions.

Gather evaluative information.

Take time away from the problem if stuck.

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