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Chapter 12

DNA Technology and Genomics

PowerPoint Lectures for

Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Seventh Edition Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey

Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko

Introduction

 DNA technology – has rapidly revolutionized the field of forensics, – permits the use of gene cloning to produce medical and industrial products, – allows for the development of genetically modified organisms for agriculture, – permits the investigation of historical questions about human family and evolutionary relationships, and – is invaluable in many areas of biological research.

Figure 12.0_1

Chapter 12: Big Ideas Gene Cloning Genetically Modified Organisms DNA Profiling Genomics

Figure 12.0_2

GENE CLONING

12.1 Genes can be cloned in recombinant plasmids



Biotechnology

is the manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products.

 For thousands of years, humans have – used microbes to make wine and cheese and – selectively bred stock, dogs, and other animals.



DNA technology

is the set of modern techniques used to study and manipulate genetic material.

Figure 12.1A

12.1 Genes can be cloned in recombinant plasmids



Genetic engineering

involves manipulating genes for practical purposes.

–

Gene cloning

leads to the production of multiple, identical copies of a gene-carrying piece of DNA.

–

Recombinant DNA

is formed by joining nucleotide sequences from two different sources.

– – – One source contains the gene that will be cloned.

Another source is a gene carrier, called a

vector

Plasmids

(small, circular DNA molecules independent of the bacterial chromosome) are often used as vectors.

12.1 Genes can be cloned in recombinant plasmids

 Steps in cloning a gene 1.

Plasmid DNA is isolated.

DNA containing the gene of interest is isolated.

Plasmid DNA is treated with a restriction enzyme that cuts in one place, opening the circle.

DNA with the target gene is treated with the same enzyme and many fragments are produced.

Plasmid and target DNA are mixed and associate with each other.

12.1 Genes can be cloned in recombinant plasmids

Recombinant DNA molecules are produced when

DNA ligase

joins plasmid and target segments together.

The recombinant plasmid containing the target gene is taken up by a bacterial cell. 8.

The bacterial cell reproduces to form a

clone

, a group of genetically identical cells descended from a single ancestral cell.

Animation: Cloning a Gene

Figure 12.1B

E. coli bacterium Bacterial chromosome Plasmid 1 A plasmid is isolated.

2 The cell’s DNA is isolated.

A cell with DNA containing the gene of interest Gene of interest 3 The plasmid is cut with an enzyme.

4 The cell’s DNA is cut with the same enzyme.

Gene of interest DNA Examples of gene use 5 The targeted fragment and plasmid DNA are combined.

Recombinant DNA plasmid Recombinant bacterium 8 6 DNA ligase is added, which joins the two DNA molecules.

Gene of interest 7 The recombinant plasmid is taken up by a bacterium through transformation.

9 Genes may be inserted into other organisms.

Examples of protein use The bacterium reproduces.

Harvested proteins may be used directly.

Clone of cells

Figure 12.1B_s1

E. coli

bacterium Bacterial chromosome Plasmid 1 A plasmid is isolated.

Gene of interest 2 The cell’s DNA is isolated.

A cell with DNA containing the gene of interest DNA

Figure 12.1B_s2

E. coli

bacterium Bacterial chromosome Plasmid 1 A plasmid is isolated.

Gene of interest 2 The cell’s DNA is isolated.

A cell with DNA containing the gene of interest DNA 3 The plasmid is cut with an enzyme.

4 The cell’s DNA is cut with the same enzyme.

Gene of interest

Figure 12.1B_s3

E. coli

bacterium Bacterial chromosome Plasmid 1 A plasmid is isolated.

Gene of interest 2 The cell’s DNA is isolated.

A cell with DNA containing the gene of interest DNA 3 The plasmid is cut with an enzyme.

4 The cell’s DNA is cut with the same enzyme.

Gene of interest 5 The targeted fragment and plasmid DNA are combined.

Figure 12.1B_s4

E. coli

bacterium Bacterial chromosome Plasmid 1 A plasmid is isolated.

Gene of interest 2 The cell’s DNA is isolated.

A cell with DNA containing the gene of interest DNA 3 The plasmid is cut with an enzyme.

4 The cell’s DNA is cut with the same enzyme.

Gene of interest 5 The targeted fragment and plasmid DNA are combined.

Recombinant DNA plasmid 6 DNA ligase is added, which joins the two DNA molecules.

Gene of interest

Figure 12.1B_s5

Recombinant DNA plasmid Recombinant bacterium Gene of interest 7 The recombinant plasmid is taken up by a bacterium through transformation.

Figure 12.1B_s6

Recombinant DNA plasmid Recombinant bacterium Gene of interest 7 The recombinant plasmid is taken up by a bacterium through transformation.

8 The bacterium reproduces.

Clone of cells

Figure 12.1B_s7

Recombinant DNA plasmid Recombinant bacterium Genes may be inserted into other organisms.

8 Gene of interest 7 The recombinant plasmid is taken up by a bacterium through transformation.

9 The bacterium reproduces.

Harvested proteins may be used directly.

Clone of cells

Figure 12.1B_8

Figure 12.1B_9

Figure 12.1B_10

Figure 12.1B_11

12.2 Enzymes are used to “cut and paste” DNA



Restriction enzymes

sequences.

cut DNA at specific – Each enzyme binds to DNA at a different

restriction site

– Many restriction enzymes make staggered cuts that produce

restriction fragments

ends called “sticky ends.” with single-stranded – Fragments with complementary sticky ends can associate with each other, forming recombinant DNA.  DNA ligase joins DNA fragments together.

Animation: Restriction Enzymes

Figure 12.2_s1

1 DNA A restriction enzyme cuts the DNA into fragments.

2 Sticky end Sticky end Restriction enzyme recognition sequence Restriction enzyme

Figure 12.2_s2

1 DNA A restriction enzyme cuts the DNA into fragments.

2 Sticky end Sticky end A DNA fragment from another source is added.

3 Restriction enzyme recognition sequence Restriction enzyme Gene of interest

Figure 12.2_s3

1 DNA A restriction enzyme cuts the DNA into fragments.

2 Sticky end Sticky end A DNA fragment from another source is added.

3 Two (or more) fragments stick together by base pairing.

4 Restriction enzyme recognition sequence Restriction enzyme Gene of interest

Figure 12.2_s4

1 DNA A restriction enzyme cuts the DNA into fragments.

2 Sticky end Sticky end A DNA fragment from another source is added.

3 Two (or more) fragments stick together by base pairing.

4 Restriction enzyme recognition sequence Restriction enzyme Gene of interest DNA ligase DNA ligase pastes the strands together.

5 Recombinant DNA molecule

12.3 Cloned genes can be stored in genomic libraries

 A

genomic library

is a collection of all of the cloned DNA fragments from a target genome.  Genomic libraries can be constructed with different types of vectors: – plasmid library: genomic DNA is carried by plasmids, – bacteriophage (phage) library: genomic DNA is incorporated into bacteriophage DNA, – bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) library: specialized plasmids that can carry large DNA sequences.

Figure 12.3

A genome is cut up with a restriction enzyme or Recombinant plasmid Recombinant phage DNA Plasmid library Bacterial clone Phage clone Phage library

12.4 Reverse transcriptase can help make genes for cloning



Complementary DNA

clone eukaryotic genes.

(

cDNA

) can be used to – In this process, mRNA from a specific cell type is the template.

–

Reverse transcriptase

mRNA.

produces a DNA strand from – DNA polymerase produces the second DNA strand.

12.4 Reverse transcriptase can help make genes for cloning

 Advantages of cloning with cDNA include the ability to – study genes responsible for specialized characteristics of a particular cell type and – obtain gene sequences – – – that are smaller in size, easier to handle, and do not have introns.

Figure 12.4

C ELL NUCLEUS Exon DNA of a eukaryotic gene Intron Exon Intron Exon 1 Transcription RNA transcript 2 RNA splicing (removes introns and joins exons) mRNA T EST T UBE Reverse transcriptase 3 Isolation of mRNA from the cell and the addition of reverse transcriptase; synthesis of a DNA strand cDNA strand being synthesized Direction of synthesis 4 Breakdown of RNA 5 Synthesis of second DNA strand cDNA of gene (no introns)

Figure 12.4_1

C ELL NUCLEUS Exon Intron DNA of a eukaryotic gene Exon Intron Exon 1 Transcription RNA transcript 2 RNA splicing (removes introns and joins exons) mRNA

Figure 12.4_2

T EST TUBE Reverse transcriptase 3 Isolation of mRNA from the cell and the addition of reverse transcriptase; synthesis of a DNA strand cDNA strand being synthesized Direction of synthesis 4 Breakdown of RNA 5 Synthesis of second DNA strand cDNA of gene (no introns)

12.5 Nucleic acid probes identify clones carrying specific genes



Nucleic acid probes

bind very selectively to cloned DNA.

– Probes can be DNA or RNA sequences complementary to a portion of the gene of interest.

– A probe binds to a gene of interest by base pairing.

– Probes are labeled with a radioactive isotope or fluorescent tag for detection.

12.5 Nucleic acid probes identify clones carrying specific genes

 One way to screen a gene library is as follows: 1.

Bacterial clones are transferred to filter paper.

Cells are broken apart and the DNA is separated into single strands.

A probe solution is added and any bacterial colonies carrying the gene of interest will be tagged on the filter paper. 4.

The clone carrying the gene of interest is grown for further study.

Figure 12.5

Radioactive nucleic acid probe (single-stranded DNA) Single-stranded DNA The probe is mixed with single-stranded DNA from a genomic library.

Base pairing highlights the gene of interest.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

12.6 Recombinant cells and organisms can mass-produce gene products

 Recombinant cells and organisms constructed by DNA technologies are used to manufacture many useful products, chiefly proteins.

 Bacteria are often the best organisms for manufacturing a protein product because bacteria – have plasmids and phages available for use as gene cloning vectors, – can be grown rapidly and cheaply, – can be engineered to produce large amounts of a particular protein, and – often secrete the proteins directly into their growth medium.

12.6 Recombinant cells and organisms can mass-produce gene products

 Yeast cells – – – are eukaryotes, have long been used to make bread and beer, can take up foreign DNA and integrate it into their genomes, – – have plasmids that can be used as gene vectors, and are often better than bacteria at synthesizing and secreting eukaryotic proteins.

12.6 Recombinant cells and organisms can mass-produce gene products

 Mammalian cells must be used to produce proteins with chains of sugars. Examples include – human erythropoietin (EPO), which stimulates the production of red blood cells, – factor VIII to treat hemophilia, and – tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) used to treat heart attacks and strokes.

Table 12.6

Table 12.6_1

Table 12.6_2

12.6 Recombinant cells and organisms can mass-produce gene products

 Pharmaceutical researchers are currently exploring the mass production of gene products by – whole animals or – plants.

 Recombinant animals – are difficult and costly to produce and – must be cloned to produce more animals with the same traits.

Figure 12.6A

Figure 12.6A_1

Figure 12.6A_2

Figure 12.6B

12.7 CONNECTION: DNA technology has changed the pharmaceutical industry and medicine

 Products of DNA technology are already in use.

– Therapeutic hormones produced by DNA technology include – – insulin to treat diabetes and human growth hormone to treat dwarfism.

– DNA technology is used to – – – test for inherited diseases, detect infectious agents such as HIV, and produce

vaccines

, harmless variants (mutants) or derivatives of a pathogen that stimulate the immune system.

Figure 12.7A

Figure 12.7B

12.8 CONNECTION: Genetically modified organisms are transforming agriculture



Genetically modified

(

) organisms contain one or more genes introduced by artificial means.



Transgenic organisms

from another species.

12.8 CONNECTION: Genetically modified organisms are transforming agriculture

 The most common vector used to introduce new genes into plant cells is – a plasmid from the soil bacterium

Agrobacterium tumefaciens

and – called the

Ti plasmid

Figure 12.8A_s1

Agrobacterium tumefaciens

DNA containing the gene for a desired trait Ti plasmid 1 The gene is inserted into the plasmid.

Restriction site Recombinant Ti plasmid

Figure 12.8A_s2

Agrobacterium tumefaciens

DNA containing the gene for a desired trait Plant cell Ti plasmid 1 The gene is inserted into the plasmid.

Restriction site Recombinant Ti plasmid 2 The recombinant plasmid is introduced into a plant cell.

DNA carrying the new gene

Figure 12.8A_s3

Agrobacterium tumefaciens

DNA containing the gene for a desired trait Plant cell Ti plasmid 1 The gene is inserted into the plasmid.

Restriction site Recombinant Ti plasmid 2 The recombinant plasmid is introduced into a plant cell.

DNA carrying the new gene 3 The plant cell grows into a plant.

A plant with the new trait

12.8 CONNECTION: Genetically modified organisms are transforming agriculture

 GM plants are being produced that – – are more resistant to herbicides and pests and provide nutrients that help address malnutrition.  GM animals are being produced with improved nutritional or other qualities.

Figure 12.8B

12.9 Genetically modified organisms raise concerns about human and environmental health

 Scientists use safety measures to guard against production and release of new pathogens.

 Concerns related to GM organisms include the potential – – introduction of allergens into the food supply and spread of genes to closely related organisms.

 Regulatory agencies are trying to address the – safety of GM products, – – labeling of GM produced foods, and safe use of biotechnology.

Figure 12.9A

Figure 12.9B

12.10 CONNECTION: Gene therapy may someday help treat a variety of diseases



Gene therapy

aims to treat a disease by supplying a functional allele.

 One possible procedure is the following: 1.

Clone the functional allele and insert it in a retroviral vector.

Use the virus to deliver the gene to an affected cell type from the patient, such as a bone marrow cell.

Viral DNA and the functional allele will insert into the patient’s chromosome.

Return the cells to the patient for growth and division.

12.10 CONNECTION: Gene therapy may someday help treat a variety of diseases



Gene therapy

is an – alteration of an afflicted individual’s genes and – attempt to treat disease.

 Gene therapy may be best used to treat disorders traceable to a single defective gene.

Figure 12.10

4 Cloned gene (normal allele) 1 An RNA version of a normal human gene is inserted into a retrovirus.

RNA genome of virus Retrovirus The engineered cells are injected into the patient.

2 Bone marrow cells are infected with the virus.

3 Viral DNA carrying the human gene inserts into the cell’s chromosome.

Bone marrow cell from the patient Bone marrow

Figure 12.10_1

Cloned gene (normal allele) 1 An RNA version of a normal human gene is inserted into a retrovirus.

RNA genome of virus Retrovirus

Figure 12.10_2

4 The engineered cells are injected into the patient.

2 Bone marrow cells are infected with the virus.

3 Viral DNA carrying the human gene inserts into the cell’s chromosome.

Bone marrow cell from the patient Bone marrow

12.10 CONNECTION: Gene therapy may someday help treat a variety of diseases

 The first successful human gene therapy trial in 2000 – tried to treat ten children with SCID (severe combined immune deficiency), – – helped nine of these patients, but caused leukemia in three of the patients, and – resulted in one death.

12.10 CONNECTION: Gene therapy may someday help treat a variety of diseases

 The use of gene therapy raises many questions.

– How can we build in gene control mechanisms that make appropriate amounts of the product at the right time and place?

– How can gene insertion be performed without harming other cell functions? – Will gene therapy lead to efforts to control the genetic makeup of human populations?

– Should we try to eliminate genetic defects in our children and descendants when genetic variety is a necessary ingredient for the survival of a species?

DNA PROFILING

12.11 The analysis of genetic markers can produce a DNA profile



DNA profiling

is the analysis of DNA fragments to determine whether they come from the same individual. DNA profiling – compares genetic markers from noncoding regions that show variation between individuals and – involves amplifying (copying) of markers for analysis.

Figure 12.11

1 DNA is isolated.

2 The DNA of selected markers is amplified.

Crime scene Suspect 1 Suspect 2 3 The amplified DNA is compared.

12.12 The PCR method is used to amplify DNA sequences



Polymerase chain reaction

(

PCR

) is a method of amplifying a specific segment of a DNA molecule.  PCR relies upon a pair of – – – short,

primers

that are chemically synthesized, single-stranded DNA molecules, and complementary to sequences at each end of the target sequence.

 PCR – – is a three-step cycle that doubles the amount of DNA in each turn of the cycle.

Figure 12.12

Cycle 1 yields two molecules 3



Genomic DNA 5 5



3 Target sequence

 

3 1 Heat separates DNA strands.

 

5 3

 

2 3



Primers bond with ends of target sequences.



Primer 3



3 5



DNA polymerase adds nucleotides.



New DNA Cycle 2 yields four molecules Cycle 3 yields eight molecules

Figure 12.12_1

Cycle 1 yields two molecules 3



Genomic DNA 5 3



Target sequence



3 5

 

5 3

 

1 Heat separates DNA strands.

2 3



Primers bond with ends of target sequences.



Primer 3



3 5



DNA polymerase adds nucleotides.



New DNA

Figure 12.12_2

Cycle 2 yields four molecules Cycle 3 yields eight molecules

12.12 The PCR method is used to amplify DNA sequences

 The advantages of PCR include – the ability to amplify DNA from a small sample, – obtaining results rapidly, and – a reaction that is highly sensitive, copying only the target sequence.

12.13 Gel electrophoresis sorts DNA molecules by size



Gel electrophoresis

can be used to separate DNA molecules based on size as follows: 1.

A DNA sample is placed at one end of a porous gel.

Current is applied and DNA molecules move from the negative electrode toward the positive electrode.

Shorter DNA fragments move through the gel matrix more quickly and travel farther through the gel. 4.

DNA fragments appear as bands, visualized through staining or detecting radioactivity or fluorescence.

Each band is a collection of DNA molecules of the same length.

Video: Biotechnology Lab

Figure 12.13

Power source A mixture of DNA fragments of different sizes Gel Longer (slower) molecules Completed gel Shorter (faster) molecules

Figure 12.13_1

Power source A mixture of DNA fragments of different sizes Gel Longer (slower) molecules Completed gel Shorter (faster) molecules

Figure 12.13_2

12.14 STR analysis is commonly used for DNA profiling



Repetitive DNA

consists of nucleotide sequences that are present in multiple copies in the genome.



Short tandem repeats

(

STRs

) are short nucleotide sequences that are repeated in tandem, – composed of different numbers of repeating units in individuals and – used in DNA profiling.



STR analysis

Figure 12.14A

STR site 1 STR site 2 Crime scene DNA The number of short tandem repeats match The number of short tandem repeats do not match Suspect’s DNA

Figure 12.14B

Crime scene DNA Suspect’s DNA Longer STR fragments Shorter STR fragments

12.15 CONNECTION: DNA profiling has provided evidence in many forensic investigations

 DNA profiling is used to – determine guilt or innocence in a crime, – settle questions of paternity, – identify victims of accidents, and – probe the origin of nonhuman materials.

Figure 12.15A

Figure 12.15B

12.16 RFLPs can be used to detect differences in DNA sequences

 A

single nucleotide polymorphism

(

SNP

) is a variation at a single base pair within a genome.



Restriction fragment length polymorphism

(

RFLP

) is a change in the length of restriction fragments due to a SNP that alters a restriction site.

 RFLP analysis involves – producing DNA fragments by restriction enzymes and – sorting these fragments by gel electrophoresis.

Figure 12.16

Restriction enzymes added DNA sample 1 DNA sample 2

Cut

z x y

Cut Longer fragments Shorter fragments

x w y

Sample 1

Cut

y z

Sample 2

Figure 12.16_1

Restriction enzymes added DNA sample 1 DNA sample 2

Cut

z x y

Cut

Figure 12.16_2

Longer fragments Shorter fragments

x w y

Sample 1

y z

Sample 2

GENOMICS

12.17 Genomics is the scientific study of whole genomes



Genomics

is the study of an organism’s complete set of genes and their interactions.

– Initial studies focused on prokaryotic genomes.

– Many eukaryotic genomes have since been investigated.

Table 12.17

12.17 Genomics is the scientific study of whole genomes

 Genomics allows another way to examine evolutionary relationships.

– Genomic studies showed a 96% similarity in DNA sequences between chimpanzees and humans.

– Functions of human disease-causing genes have been determined by comparing human genes to similar genes in yeast.

12.18 CONNECTION: The Human Genome Project revealed that most of the human genome does not consist of genes

 The goals of the

Human Genome Project

included (

HGP

) – determining the nucleotide sequence of all DNA in the human genome and – identifying the location and sequence of every human gene.

12.18 CONNECTION: The Human Genome Project revealed that most of the human genome does not consist of genes

 Results of the Human Genome Project indicate that – humans have about 20,000 genes in 3.2 billion nucleotide pairs, – only 1.5% of the DNA codes for proteins, tRNAs, or rRNAs, and – the remaining 98.5% of the DNA is noncoding DNA including –

telomeres

, stretches of noncoding DNA at the ends of chromosomes, and –

transposable elements

, DNA segments that can move or be copied from one location to another within or between chromosomes.

Figure 12.18

Exons (regions of genes coding for protein or giving rise to rRNA or tRNA) (1.5%) Repetitive DNA that includes transposable elements and related sequences (44%) Introns and regulatory sequences (24%) Unique noncoding DNA (15%) Repetitive DNA unrelated to transposable elements (15%)

12.19 The whole-genome shotgun method of sequencing a genome can provide a wealth of data quickly

 The Human Genome Project proceeded through three stages that provided progressively more detailed views of the human genome.

A low-resolution

linkage map

was developed using RFLP analysis of 5,000 genetic markers.

physical map

was constructed from nucleotide distances between the linkage-map markers.

DNA sequences for the mapped fragments were determined.

12.19 The whole-genome shotgun method of sequencing a genome can provide a wealth of data quickly

 The

whole-genome shotgun method

– was proposed in 1992 by molecular biologist J. Craig Venter, who – used restriction enzymes to produce fragments that were cloned and sequenced in just one stage and – ran high-performance computer analyses to assemble the sequence by aligning overlapping regions.

12.19 The whole-genome shotgun method of sequencing a genome can provide a wealth of data quickly

 Today, this whole-genome shotgun approach is the method of choice for genomic researchers because it is – – relatively fast and inexpensive.

 However, limitations of the whole-genome shotgun method suggest that a hybrid approach using genome shotgunning and physical maps may prove to be the most useful.

Figure 12.19

Chromosome Chop up each chromosome with restriction enzymes DNA fragments Sequence the fragments Align the fragments Reassemble the full sequence

12.20 Proteomics is the scientific study of the full set of proteins encoded by a genome



Proteomics

– is the study of the full protein sets encoded by genomes and – investigates protein functions and interactions.

 The human proteome includes about 100,000 proteins.

 Genomics and proteomics are helping biologists study life from an increasingly holistic approach.

12.21 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Genomes hold clues to human evolution

 Human and chimp genomes differ by – – 1.2% in single-base substitutions and 2.7% in insertions and deletions of larger DNA sequences.

 Genes showing rapid evolution in humans include – – – genes for defense against malaria and tuberculosis, a gene regulating brain size, and the

FOXP2

gene involved with speech and vocalization.

12.21 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Genomes hold clues to human evolution

 Neanderthals – – – – – were close human relatives, were a separate species, also had the

FOXP2

gene, may have had pale skin and red hair, and were lactose intolerant.

Figure 12.21

You should now be able to

Explain how plasmids are used in gene cloning.

Explain how restriction enzymes are used to “cut and paste” DNA into plasmids.

Explain how plasmids, phages, and BACs are used to construct genomic libraries.

Explain how a cDNA library is constructed and how it is different from genomic libraries constructed using plasmids or phages. 5.

You should now be able to

Explain how different organisms are used to mass produce proteins of human interest.

Explain how DNA technology has helped to produce insulin, growth hormone, and vaccines.

Explain how genetically modified (GM) organisms are transforming agriculture.

Describe the risks posed by the creation and culturing of GM organisms and the safeguards that have been developed to minimize these risks.

You should now be able to

10.

Describe the benefits and risks of gene therapy in humans. Discuss the ethical issues that these techniques present.

11.

Describe the basic steps of DNA profiling.

12.

Explain how PCR is used to amplify DNA sequences.

13.

Explain how gel electrophoresis is used to sort DNA and proteins.

14.

You should now be able to

15.

Describe the diverse applications of DNA profiling.

16.

Explain how restriction fragment analysis is used to detect differences in DNA sequences.

17.

Explain why it is important to sequence the genomes of humans and other organisms.

18.

Describe the structure and possible functions of the noncoding sections of the human genome.

19.

You should now be able to

21.

Compare the fields of genomics and proteomics.

22.

Figure 12.UN01

Bacterial clone Cut DNA fragments Bacterium Cut Plasmids Recombinant DNA plasmids Recombinant bacteria Genomic library

Figure 12.UN02

A mixture of DNA fragments A “band” is a collection of DNA fragments of one particular length Longer fragments move slower Shorter fragments move faster DNA is attracted to pole due to PO 4

 

groups Power source

Figure 12.UN03

(c) DNA amplified via (a) DNA sample treated with (b) Bacterial plasmids treated with DNA fragments sorted by size via Recombinant plasmids are inserted into bacteria Add (d) Particular DNA sequence highlighted are copied via (e)

Figure 12.UN03_1

DNA amplified via (a) DNA sample treated with (b) Bacterial plasmids treated with

Figure 12.UN03_2

(c) DNA fragments sorted by size via Recombinant plasmids are inserted into bacteria Add (d) Particular DNA sequence highlighted are copied via (e)

Slide 1

Transcript Slide 1

Chapter 12

GENE CLONING

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

DNA PROFILING

GENOMICS

Directory