Transcript SOCIAL THEORY AND CITIZENSHIP Questions for Session 1

SOCIAL THEORY AND CITIZENSHIP
Questions for Session 1
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What are the ‘common’ meanings of citizenship ?
How does T.H. Marshall devise his model of citizenship widely
discussed in citizenship studies?
What are the weaknesses of T.H. Marshall’s model of
citizenship?
How does Bryan S. Turner revise T.H. Marshall’s model of
citizenship?
Does citizenship mean the ‘same thing’ for different people? If
yes/no, why?
What is multiple citizenship?
The pluralization of citizenship have major implications. Why
and how?
Can citizenship be totalized, for example, by reference to
citizenships persons posses as members of a nation-state?
How does Bryan Turner consider the position of ‘citizenship’ in
his model of citizenship?
Four Meanings of Citizenship (Roger M. Smith, 2002)
1. A citizen is a person with political rights to participate in the
processes of popular self-governance (rights to vote; to hold
elective appointive governmental offices; to serve on various sorts
of juries; and to participate in political debates as equal
community members, etc.);
2. In modern world, citizenship is a more purely legal status. Citizens
are people who are legally recognized as members of a particular,
officially sovereign political community;
3. In the last century, citizens refer to those who belong to almost
any human association, whether a political community or some
other groups (neighborhood*, fitness club*, university* and
broader political community*), and
4. Citizenship signifies not just membership in some groups but
certain standards of proper conducts. Contributors, not freeriders, are considered ‘true citizens’ of those bodies*
T.H. Marshall
• Citizenship:
A status bestowed on those who are full
members of a community (including civil,
political and social rights and obligations)
Marshall’s definition of citizenship implies ‘multi-tier’,
i.e. local, national, transnational. etc.
What is Citizenship?
T. H. Marshall’s Model of Citizenship
Period
17-18th centuries
18-19th centuries
19-20th centuries
Rights
Legal rights
Political rights
Social rights
Institutions
Jury system
Parliaments
Welfare state
T.H. Marshall’s Model of Citizenship
• Civil rights: freedoms of speech, thought and faith and rights to
property, contract and justice.
• Political rights: the right to participate in public decisions and
vote.
• Social rights: rights to security and welfare and to share in the
social heritage and to live the life of a civilized being according to
the standards prevailing in the society.
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Marshall emphasizes that the history of citizenship he is tracing is
national rather than local in medieval cities. In the medieval period,
these three types of citizenship were fused together and inseparable. He
traces the evolution of civil rights through a series of legislation passed
between 1688 and 1832 concerning the freedom of the individual.
While political rights existed in the eighteenth century, they were far
from universal.
Political rights were extended to those who, using their civil rights, has
made economic gains and purchased property. Poor Laws and Factory
Act (UK): State’s protection only when one abandoned one’s civil and
political rights
T.H. Marshall’s Model of Citizenship – Some Weaknesses
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Marshall argues that citizenship operated as an instrument of
social stratification. The rise of social rights in the 18th century,
but has made citizenship the architect of a new class inequality.
Education became tied to occupation (professional, semiprofessional and skilled labor).
Criticisms of Marshall’s Model:
Emphasis on how citizenship ameliorated class conflicts but not
how citizenship rights were earned as a result of class struggles.
Historically citizenship emerged as a circuitous way, rather than
in a linear fashion.
Focusing on pattern of inequality, but other forms of inequality
such as gender, race, religion, language and ethnicity were not
examined.
Assuming that rights are revolutionary. One obtains legal rights
and wins political battle in democratic parliament.
One-dimensional analysis, ignoring division of active and
passive citizenship.
Bryan S. Turner
Citizenship:
a collection of rights and obligations
which give individuals a formal legal
identity; these legal rights and
obligations have been put together
historically as sets of social institutions
such as the jury systems, parliaments and
welfare state.
Bryan S. Turner
Sociological: institutions of citizenship, social identity,
nature of equality and access to social-economic
resources* (Marshall).
Protection of individuals and groups from negative
outcomes of the market in a capitalist society.
*White Australian Policy = social closure (Fear of
diversity); inclusion and exclusion of formal criteria
within a political community
Political: political rights, the state and individual (e.g.
Rousseau’s social contract; Fichte’s science of rights)
What is Citizenship?
A Revised Model of Citizenship (Bryan S. Turner, 1999)
Period
City-state
Nation-state
Welfare-state
Global-capitalism
Person
Denizen
Citizen
Social citizen
Human being
Rights
Legal rights
Political rights
Social rights
Human rights
Bryan S. Turner
• Public/Private
No longer use ‘from Subject to citizenship’ concept
• Active/Passive
Top-Down: e.g. German and many postcolonial states
Turner’s pair-concepts of citizenship is Eurocentric (claimed to be universal (?)). It does not
pay sufficient attention to ‘gender differences’;
control and negotiation that take place in
diferrent areas of social life
Differential Citizenship (Wayne Hudson 2000)
A non-traditional approach to citizenship
• Citizen is generally taken to be a member of something.
A member of a city or community or a state or an empire or an
association or a corporation.
• Stress on exclusion and clear boundaries: who gives citizenship,
who judges disputed cases, who is denied c, etc.
• In practice, citizenship is not one thing that conceals the
heterogeneous sites. Some forms of citizenship are specific to one
site or particular membership (club, voluntary association, church,
etc).
• Others amount to exercises of capacity: those who do it are citizen
in that domain. In other contexts citizenship implies a positive
evaluation of behavior.
• Citizenship is thus an ethic by which existing arrangements can be
evaluated and judged.
Differential Citizenship
• Multiple citizenship: not just dual, but many citizenships because
of the consideration of race, gender, language, religion, etc.
– Citizenship varies in different domains: local government, state,
national, regional and international c. political v legal; social v
cultural; economic, corporate and industrial c.
– Different cases and terrains: sexual, educational, media,
military, environmental, ecological and religious c.
• So, citizenship is different on different sites and in different
contexts and domains (varies with discourse and context);
• Different citizenships involves multiple capacities;
• Exercise of civic capacity do not fall under a single citizenship, and
• Thus, citizenship cannot be totalized, especially for example, by
reference to citizenships persons posses as members of a nationstate.
Differential Citizenship
• The pluralization of citizenship has major implications because
there are multiple conceptions, forms, and logics of citizenship.
1. Citizenship is different for different people in different contexts,
depending on race, age, religion and gender. Some forms of
citizenship are intrinsically heterogeneous.
2. Discursive forms of citizenship: the range of citizenships extends
further because some forms of citizenship are simply
hermeneutical. They arise with forms of interpretation
• Differential citizenship recognizes multiple and irreducible types
of citizenship negotiated by the exercises of multiple civic
capacities
• Good citizenship unleashes a large number of citizenship statuses
which do not depend on membership of any particular nationstate (post-nationalist citizenship)
What is Citizenship?
A Sociological Model of Citizenship (Bryan S. Turner)
CITIZENSHIP
IDENTITY
CIVIC VIRTUE
COMMUNITY
RESOURCES
Review Questions
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To what extent has Indonesian citizenship or citizenship
education considered:
T.H. Marshall’s model of citizenship? How?
Bryan Turner’s revised model of citizenship? How?
Wayne Hudson’s ‘Differential Citizenship’ approach? How?
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How does Indonesia’s law on citizenship handle issues of
multiple citizenship? Do you think it has sufficiently coped with
the needs in the global age? Why?
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If you are supposed to teach school or university students, how
would you inform them about issues of or approach to
‘differential citizenship’ and multiple citizenship in relation to
the common practice of citizenship in Indonesia?
The Path to Modern Citizenship
Ancient ‘Democratic’ Citizenship
– Greek
– Roman
• Modern ‘Democratic’ Citizenship
– Social contract
– Enlightenment (Aufklarung)
• Social Democratic Citizenship
– Old social democracy
• Contemporary Democratic Citizenship
– Liberalism
– Republicanism
– Communitarianism
– Radical Democratic Citizenship