Transcript Chap001-2011
Chapter 1 Introduction to Electronics
Microelectronic Circuit Design Richard C. Jaeger Travis N. Blalock Modified by Ming Ouhyoung
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill
Chap 1 - 1
Chapter Goals
• Explore the history of electronics.
• Quantify the impact of integrated circuit technologies.
• Describe classification of electronic signals.
• Review circuit notation and theory.
• Introduce tolerance impacts and analysis.
• Describe problem solving approach
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 2
The Start of the Modern Electronics Era
Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain at Bell Labs - Brattain and Bardeen invented the bipolar transistor in 1947.
The first germanium bipolar transistor. Roughly 50 years later, electronics account for 10% (4 trillion dollars) of the world GDP.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 3
Electronics Milestones
1874 Braun invents the solid-state rectifier.
1906 DeForest invents triode vacuum tube.
1907-1927 First radio circuits developed from diodes and triodes.
1925 Lilienfeld field-effect device patent filed.
1947 Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Laboratories invent bipolar transistors.
1952 Commercial bipolar transistor production at Texas Instruments.
1956 Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley receive Nobel prize.
1958 Integrated circuits developed by Kilby and Noyce 1961 First commercial IC from Fairchild Semiconductor 1963 IEEE formed from merger of IRE and AIEE 1968 First commercial IC opamp 1970 One transistor DRAM cell invented by Dennard at IBM.
1971 4004 Intel microprocessor introduced.
1978 First commercial 1-kilobit memory.
1974 8080 microprocessor introduced.
1984 Megabit memory chip introduced.
2000 Alferov, Kilby, and Kromer share Nobel prize
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 4
• The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000 was awarded
"for basic work on information and communication technology"
with one half jointly to Zhores I. Alferov and Herbert Kroemer
in high-speed- and opto-electronics" "for developing semiconductor heterostructures used
and the other half to Jack S. Kilby
"for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit“.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 5
Evolution of Electronic Devices
Vacuum Tubes Discrete Transistors SSI and MSI Integrated Circuits
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill
VLSI Surface-Mount Circuits
Chap 1 - 6
Microelectronics Proliferation
• The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.
• World transistor production has more than doubled every year for the past twenty years.
• Every year, more transistors are produced than in all previous years combined. • Approximately 10 18 year.
transistors were produced in a recent • Roughly 50 transistors for every ant in the world.
*Source: Gordon Moore’s Plenary address at the 2003 International Solid State Circuits Conference.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 7
Device Feature Size
• Feature size reductions enabled by process innovations.
• Smaller features lead to more transistors per unit area and therefore higher density.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 8
Rapid Increase in Density of Microelectronics
Memory chip density versus time.
Microprocessor complexity
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill
versus time.
Chap 1 - 9
Signal Types
• Analog signals take on continuous values typically current or voltage.
• Digital signals appear at discrete levels. Usually we use binary signals which utilize only two levels.
• One level is referred to as logical 1 and logical 0 is assigned to the other level.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 10
Analog and Digital Signals
• Analog signals are continuous in time and voltage or current. (Charge can also be used as a signal conveyor.) • After digitization, the continuous analog signal becomes a set of discrete values, typically separated by fixed time intervals.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 11
Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Conversion
V FS
= Full -Scale Voltage • For an n-bit D/A converter, the output voltage is expressed as:
V O
(
b
1 2 1
b
2 2 2 ...
b n
2
n
)
V FS
• The smallest possible voltage change is known as the least significant bit or LSB.
V LSB
2
n V FS
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 12
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion
• Analog input voltage v x is converted to the nearest n-bit number.
• For a four bit converter, 0 → v x output.
input yields a 0000 → 1111 digital • Output is approximation of input due to the limited resolution of the n bit output. Error is expressed as:
V
v x
(
b
1 2 1
b
2 2 2 ...
b n
2
n
)
V FS
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 13
A/D Converter Transfer Characteristic
V
v x
(
b
1 2 1
b
2 2 2 ...
b n
2
n
)
V FS
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 14
Notational Conventions
• Total signal = DC bias + time varying signal
i v T T
V DC I DC
v
i sig sig
• Resistance and conductance - R and G with same subscripts will denote reciprocal quantities. Most convenient form will be used within expressions.
G x
1
R x and g
1
r
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 15
Problem-Solving Approach
• Make a clear
problem
statement.
• List
known information and given data
.
• Define the
unknowns
required to solve the problem.
• List
assumptions
.
• Develop an
approach
• Perform the
analysis
to the solution.
based on the approach.
•
Check the results
and the assumptions.
– Has the problem been solved? Have all the unknowns been found?
– Is the math correct? Have the assumptions been satisfied?
•
Evaluate the solution
.
– Do the results satisfy reasonableness constraints?
– Are the values realizable?
• Use
computer-aided analysis
to verify hand analysis
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 16
What are Reasonable Numbers?
• If the power supply is ± 10 V, a calculated DC bias value of 15 V (not within the range of the power supply voltages) is unreasonable.
• Generally, our bias current levels will be between 1 μ A and a few hundred milliamps.
• A calculated bias current of 3.2 amps is probably unreasonable and should be reexamined.
• Peak-to-peak ac voltages should be within the power supply voltage range.
• A calculated component value that is unrealistic should be rechecked. For example, a resistance equal to 0.013 ohms.
• Given the inherent variations in most electronic components, three significant digits are adequate for representation of results. Three significant digits are used throughout the text.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 17
Circuit Theory: Voltage Division (9/19)
v
1
i i R
1 and
v
2
i i R
2 Applying KVL (Kirchhoff’s voltage law) to the loop,
v i
v
1
v
2
R
2 ) and
i
i i R
1 (
R v i
1
R
2 Combining these yields the basic voltage division formula:
v
1
v i R
1
R
1
R
2
v
2
v i R
1
R
2
R
2
Chap 1 - 18
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill
Circuit Theory: Voltage Division (cont.)
Using the derived equations with the indicated values,
v
1 10 V 8 k 8 k 2 k 8.00 V
v
2 10 V 2 k 8 k 2 k 2.00 V Design Note: Voltage division only applies when both resistors are carrying the same current.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 19
Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)
• The principle of conservation of energy implies that – The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed circuit is zero.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 20
Circuit Theory: Current Division
i i
i
1
i
2 where
i
1
v i R
1 and Combining and solving for v s ,
i
2
v i R
2
v i
i i
1
R
1 1
R
2
i i
1
R
1
R
2
R
2
i i R
1 ||
R
2 Combining these yields the basic current division formula:
i
1
i i R
1
R
2
R
2
i
2
i i R
1
R
1
R
2
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill
and
Chap 1 - 21
Circuit Theory: Current Division (cont.)
Using the derived equations with the indicated values,
i
1 5 ma 3 k 2 k 3 k 3.00 mA
i
2 5 ma 2 k 2 k 3 k 2.00 mA Design Note: Current division only applies when the same voltage appears across both resistors.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 22
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)
• The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that: – At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 23
Circuit Theory: Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
Thévenin
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill
Norton
Chap 1 - 24
Thévenin Equivalent Circuits ( 戴維寧等效電路 )
• The Thévenin-equivalent voltage is the voltage at the output terminals of the original circuit.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 25
Thévenin Equivalent Circuits
• The Thévenin-equivalent resistance is the resistance measured across points A and B "looking back" into the circuit.
• It is important to first replace all voltage- and current-sources with their internal resistances.
• For an ideal voltage source, this means replace the voltage source with a short circuit.
• For an ideal current source, this means replace the current source with an open circuit.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 26
Circuit Theory: Find the Thévenin Equivalent Voltage
• • • •
Problem:
Find the Thévenin equivalent voltage at the output.
•
Solution: Known Information and Given Data:
Circuit topology and values in figure.
Unknowns:
Thévenin equivalent voltage
v
th .
Approach:
is defined as the output voltage with no load.
Voltage source
v
th
Assumptions:
None.
Analysis:
Next slide…
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 27
Circuit Theory: Find the Thévenin Equivalent Voltage
Applying KCL at the output node,
i
1
v o
R
1
v i
v o R S
G
1
v o
v i
Current i 1 can be written as:
i
1
G
1
v i G S
v o v o
Combining the previous equations
G
1 1
v i
G
1 1
G S
v o v o
G
1
G
1 1 1
G S v i
R
1
R S R
1
R S
1 1
R S
R S
R
1
v i
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 28
Circuit Theory: Find the Thévenin Equivalent Voltage (cont.)
Using the given component values:
v o
1 1
R S
R S
R
1
v i
50 1 50 1 1 k 1 k 1 k
v i
0.718
v i
and
v
th
0.718
v i
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 29
Circuit Theory: Find the Thévenin Equivalent Resistance
• • • •
Problem:
Find the Thévenin equivalent resistance.
•
Solution: Known Information and Given Data
: Circuit topology and values in figure.
Unknowns
: Thévenin equivalent Resistance
R th
.
Approach
to zero.
: Find
R th
as the output equivalent resistance with independent sources set
Assumptions
: None.
Analysis
: Next slide… Test voltage v x has been added to the previous circuit. Applying v x and solving for i x allows us to find the Thévenin resistance as v x /i x .
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 30
Circuit Theory: Find the Thévenin Equivalent Resistance (cont.)
Applying KCL,
i x
i
1
i
1
G S v x
G
1
v x G
1
G
1
v x
1
G S
G S v x
v x R th
v x i x
G
1 1 1
G S
R S
R
1 1
R th
R S
R
1 1 1 k 20 k 50 1 1 k 392 282
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 31
Norton Equivalent Circuits
• Calculate the output current,
I
AB , with a short circuit as the load.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 32
Circuit Theory: Find the Norton Equivalent Circuit
• • • •
Problem:
Find the Norton equivalent circuit.
•
Solution: Known Information and Given Data
: Circuit topology and values in figure.
Unknowns
current
i
n .
: Norton equivalent short circuit
Approach
: Evaluate current through output short circuit.
Assumptions
: None.
Analysis
: Next slide… A short circuit has been applied across the output. The Norton current is the current flowing through the short circuit at the output.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 33
Circuit Theory: Find the Norton Equivalent Circuit (cont.)
Applying KCL,
i n i n
i
1
G
1
v s G
1
G
1
v i
1
v i v i
i
1 1
R
1 Short circuit at the output causes zero current to flow through R S .
R th is equal to R th found earlier.
50 20 k 1
v i
v i
392 (2.55 mS)
v i
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 34
Final Thévenin and Norton Circuits
Check of Results:
Note that
v
th =
i
n
R
th and this can be used to check the calculations:
i
n
R
th =(2.55 mS)
v
i (282 ) = 0.719
v
i , accurate within round-off error.
While the two circuits are identical in terms of voltages and currents at the output terminals, there is one difference between the two circuits. With no load connected, the Norton circuit still dissipates power!
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 35
Ω ℧
• The SI unit of electrical conductance is the siemens , also known as the mho (ohm spelled backwards, symbol is ℧); it is the reciprocal of resistance in ohms.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 36
Frequency Spectrum of Electronic Signals
• Non repetitive signals have continuous spectra often occupying a broad range of frequencies • Fourier theory tells us that repetitive signals are composed of a set of sinusoidal signals with distinct amplitude, frequency, and phase.
• The set of sinusoidal signals is known as a
Fourier series
.
• The frequency spectrum of a signal is the amplitude and phase components of the signal versus frequency.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 37
Frequencies of Some Common Signals
• Audible sounds • Baseband TV • FM Radio • Television (Channels 2-6) • Television (Channels 7-13) • Maritime and Govt. Comm.
• Cell phones and other wireless • Satellite TV • Wireless Devices 20 Hz - 20 KHz 0 - 4.5 MHz 88 - 108 MHz 54 - 88 MHz 174 - 216 MHz 216 - 450 MHz 1710 - 2690 MHz 3.7 - 4.2 GHz 5.0 - 5.5 GHz
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 38
Fourier Series
• Any periodic signal contains spectral components only at discrete frequencies related to the period of the original signal. • A square wave is represented by the following Fourier series:
v
(
t
)
V DC
2
V O
sin 0
t
1 3 sin 3 0
t
1 5 sin 5 0
t
...
0 =2 /T (rad/s) is the fundamental radian frequency and f 0 =1/T (Hz) is the fundamental frequency of the signal. 2f 0 , 3f 0 , 4f 0 and called the second, third, and fourth harmonic frequencies.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 39
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 40
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 41
Amplifier Basics
• Analog signals are typically manipulated with linear amplifiers.
• Although signals may be comprised of several different components, linearity permits us to use the
superposition principle
.
• Superposition allows us to calculate the effect of each of the different components of a signal individually and then add the individual contributions to the output.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 42
Amplifier Linearity
Given an input sinusoid:
v i
V i
sin(
i t
) For a linear amplifier, the output is at the same frequency, but different amplitude and phase.
In phasor notation: Amplifier gain is:
v o
V o
sin(
i t
)
A
v
i
V i
v o v
i
v o
V o
( )
V o
(
V i
)
V o V i
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 43
Amplifier Input/Output Response
v
i = sin2000
t
V
A v
= -5 Note: negative gain is equivalent to 180 degrees of phase shift.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 44
Ideal Operational Amplifier (Op Amp)
Ideal op amps are assumed to have infinite voltage gain, and infinite input resistance.
These conditions lead to two assumptions useful in analyzing ideal op-amp circuits: 1. The voltage difference across the input terminals is zero.
2. The input currents are zero.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 45
Ideal Op Amp Example
Writing a loop equation: From assumption 2, we know that i = 0.
Assumption 1 requires v = v + = 0.
Combining these equations yields: Assumption 1 requiring v = v + = 0 creates what is known as a
virtual ground
.
v i
i i R
1
i i
i
2
i
2
R
2
v i A v
i i v o v i
v v
v i R
1
R
1
R
2
R
1
o
0
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 46
Ideal Op Amp Example (Alternative Approach)
From Assumption 2,
i
2 = i
i
: Yielding: Design Note: The virtual ground is input to ground to simplify analysis.
not
an actual ground. Do not short the inverting
i i
v i R
1
A v i
2
v i R
1
v
R
2
v o R
2
v o v o v i
R
2
R
1
v o R
2
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 47
Amplifier Frequency Response
Amplifiers can be designed to selectively amplify specific ranges of frequencies. Such an amplifier is known as a filter. Several filter types are shown below: Low Pass High Pass Band Pass Band Reject All Pass
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 48
Circuit Element Variations
• All electronic components have manufacturing tolerances.
– Resistors can be purchased with 10%, 1% tolerance. (IC resistors are often 5%, and 10%.) – Capacitors can have asymmetrical tolerances such as +20%/-50%.
– Power supply voltages typically vary from 1% to 10%.
• Device parameters will also vary with temperature and age.
• Circuits must be designed to accommodate these variations.
• We will use worst-case and Monte Carlo (statistical) analysis to examine the effects of component parameter variations.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 49
Tolerance Modeling
• For symmetrical parameter variations P nom (1 ) P P nom (1 + ) • For example, a 10K resistor with values: 5% percent tolerance could take on the following range of 10k(1 - 0.05) 9,500 R R 10k(1 + 0.05) 10,500
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 50
Circuit Analysis with Tolerances
• Worst-case analysis – Parameters are manipulated to produce the worst-case min and max values of desired quantities.
– This can lead to over design since the worst-case combination of parameters is rare.
– It may be less expensive to discard a rare failure than to design for 100% yield.
• Monte-Carlo analysis – Parameters are randomly varied to generate a set of statistics for desired outputs.
– The design can be optimized so that failures due to parameter variation are less frequent than failures due to other mechanisms.
– In this way, the design difficulty is better managed than a worst case approach.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 51
Worst Case Analysis Example
• • • • •
Problem: Solution:
Find the nominal and worst-case values for output voltage and source current.
Known Information and Given Data
: Circuit topology and values in figure.
Unknowns
: V O nom , V O min I I nom , I I min , I I max .
, V O max
Approach
: Find nominal values and then select R of the unknowns.
1 , R 2 , and V I values to generate extreme cases ,
Assumptions
: None.
Analysis
: Next slides… Nominal voltage solution:
V O nom
V I nom
15
V R
1
nom R
1
nom
R
2
nom
18
k
18
k
36
k
5
V
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill
Chap 1 - 52
Worst-Case Analysis Example (cont.)
Nominal Source current:
I I nom
R
1
V I nom nom
R
2
nom
18
k
15
V
36
k
278
A
Rewrite V O to help us determine how to find the worst-case values.
V O
V I R
1
R
1
R
2 1
V I
R
2
R
1 V O is maximized for max V I , R 1 and min R 2 .
V O is minimized for min V I , R 1 , and max R 2 .
V O
max 1 15
V
(1.1) 36
K
(0.95) 18
K
(1.05) 5.87
V V O
min 1 15
V
(0.95) 36
K
(1.05) 18
K
(0.95) 4.20
V
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill
Chap 1 - 53
Worst-Case Analysis Example (cont.)
Worst-case source currents:
I I
max
R
1 min
V I
max
R
2 min 15
V
(1.1) 18
k
(0.95) 36
k
(0.95) 322
A I I
min
R
1 max
V I
min
R
2 max 15
V
(0.9) 18
k
(1.05) 36
k
(1.05) 238
A
Check of Results:
reasonable.
The worst-case values range from 14-17 percent above and below the nominal values. The sum of the three element tolerances is 20 percent, so our calculated values appear to be
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 54
Monte Carlo Analysis
• Parameters are varied randomly and output statistics are gathered.
• We use programs like MATLAB, Mathcad, SPICE, or a spreadsheet to complete a statistically significant set of calculations.
• For example, a resistor with Epsilon ε% tolerance can be expressed as:
R
R nom
( 1 2 (
RAND
() 0 .
5 )) The RAND() function returns random numbers uniformly distributed between 0 and 1.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 55
Monte Carlo Analysis Result
WC WC Histogram of output voltage from 1000 case Monte Carlo simulation.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 56
Monte Carlo Analysis Example
• • • •
Problem:
Perform a Monte Carlo analysis and find the mean, standard deviation, min, and max for V O , I S , and power delivered from the source.
•
Solution: Known Information and Given Data
: Circuit topology and values in figure.
Unknowns
: The mean, standard deviation, min, and max for V O , I I , and P I .
Approach
: Use a spreadsheet to evaluate the circuit equations with random parameters.
Assumptions
: None.
Analysis
: Next slides… Monte Carlo parameter definitions:
V I R
1
R
2 15(1 0.2(
RAND
() 0.5)) 18,000(1 0.1(
RAND
() 0.5)) 36,000(1 0.1(
RAND
() 0.5))
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 57
Monte Carlo Analysis Example (cont.)
Monte Carlo parameter definitions:
V S
15(1 0.2(
RAND
() 0.5))
R
1 18,000(1 0.1(
RAND
() 0.5))
R
2 36,000(1 0.1(
RAND
() 0.5)) Circuit equations based on Monte Carlo parameters:
V O
V I
R
1
R
1
R
2
I I
R
1
V I
R
2 Results: V o I I (V) (mA) P (mW) Avg 4.12
Nom.
5.00
Stdev 0.30
0.278 0.0173 0.310
4.17
0.490
5.04
P
5.87
0.322
--
I
V I I I
4.37
0.242
3.29
4.20
0.238
--
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 58
Temperature Coefficients
• Most circuit parameters are temperature sensitive.
P = P nom (1+ 1 ∆T+ 2 ∆T 2 ) where ∆T = T-T nom P nom is defined at T nom • Most versions of SPICE allow for the specification of TNOM, T, TC1( 1 ), TC2( 2 ).
• SPICE temperature model for resistor: R(T) = R(TNOM)*[1+TC1*(T-TNOM)+TC2*(T-TNOM) 2 ] • Many other components have similar models.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 59
Numeric Precision
• Most circuit parameters vary from less than ± to greater than ± 50%.
1 % • As a consequence, more than three significant digits is meaningless.
• Results in the text will be represented with three significant digits: 2.03 mA, 5.72 V, 0.0436 µA, and so on.
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 60
Homework
• Problems 1.24, 1.25
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 61
End of Chapter 1
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 62