Design Brief

What is a design brief….

‘

It is a short, precise, clear statement that summarises what is required of the design task.

’

For example: I intend to design and manufacture a toy for a five year old.

The brief should be written based on a problem or need.

I intend to design and manufacture….

SPECIFICATION

When designing a product, a designer has to make sure that it meets the design specification.

A specification is a statement that tells the designer exactly what the product has to do and what the design requirements are. A specification will always:

• • •

Describe what the product has to do Describe what the product will look like Include details of any other requirements

In detail, a specification should include the following information about the product: • The main function of the product • The main overall dimensions of the product • The main materials which are likely to be used • An outline of the appearance of the product • User requirements • How anthropometrics and ergonomics effect the design • The cost of the product • Possible production levels - one-off, batch, mass production • Legal requirements which may have to be met • Environmental considerations and requirements • Moral, social and cultural issues Do not forget you can use the acronym ACCESS FM to outline the majority of points.

A esthetics C ost C ustomer E nvironment S ize S afety F unction M aterial

A

esthetics -

Does the Product look good? Does it make use of its shape, colour, finish, texture etc? What has inspired it ’ s appearance?

C

ost -

What do you expect the product to cost to produce? How much is the retail price? How are the answers related? Is it value for money?

C

ustomer -

Who is it designed for? How is your product promoted to attract the customers attention? Will it have a positive impact on the customers way of life? How?

E

nvironment -

What is the products impact on the environment? What happens when it is no longer needed? Think about the three R rule, reduce, reuse, recycle.

S

ize -

Is the product/packaging suitable for the product and its use? Would it look or function better if it were changed?

S

afety -

Have you considered safety issues needed? Will there need to be warnings stated? Will the way it is going to be used change the safety?

F

unction -

Does the product or packaging do what it is intended to do?

M

aterial -

What material will it be made from? Would a different material work better? Will the choice of material have a direct impact on the environment?

ERGONOMICS

Whatever you are designing, it must fit the person it is design for (usually called the customer / client). Adults and children come in all shapes and sizes. We all like or dislike colours, texture, sounds, tastes, flavours, forms and shapes. Consequently, when we design products, factors such as these should be kept in mind. When designing a toy there are a number of points to consider. Children learn from sound, sight, colour, movement and other aspects. These all contribute to the ergonomics or anthropometrics of a design.

ERGONOMICS is mainly concerned with working out measurements, in order to improve the design of products.

ANTHROPOMETRICS

Anthropometrics

is the name given to the study of the physical sizes and shapes of people in relation to the design of products. For example, chairs used in schools need to be suitable for most of the sizes of pupils in the schools.

It enables designers to design and manufacture products that ‘ fit ’ the user.

Accurate data on height, weight, limb, and body segment sizes are needed to design items ranging from clothing, furniture, automobiles, buses, and subway cars to space shuttles and space stations.

The three main areas (parameters) that need to be taken into consideration are:

Gender

height, size, weight, strength, and body segment proportion

Age

height, size, weight, strength, and body segment proportion

Ethnicity

height, size, weight, and body segment proportion

EVALUATIONS

Designers evaluate their finished products or prototypes in order to test whether they work well and if the design can be corrected or improved. Whatever you have designed it is important to evaluate your work constantly during the project. Evaluation can take a variety of forms: General discussion with other pupils, staff and others.

Questionnaires / surveys carried out at any time during the project.

Your personal views, what you think of existing designs.

Most important of all - what do you think of your designs, prototypes and finished products ?

Can you think of any other ways of evaluating your work ?

CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING POINTS WHEN WRITING YOUR FINAL EVALUATION 1. What do you think of the overall design ? What changes would you make ?

2. Are you happy with the materials you chose ? Would you make adjustments next time ?

3. Is the colour scheme exactly what you expected ? What alterations would you make ?

4. Did the project take too long to make ? Would this alter the cost of manufacture ?

5. Would it be easy to set up a production line for the manufacture of your solution ?

6. Is your solution safe ? Could it be made safer ?

7. Are the techniques you used to make your solution adequate or would you use a different range of manufacturing techniques ?

8. Is the solution the right size/shape ?

9. What are the views of other people regarding your design ?

10. Does it work ? What changes are required ?

The final evaluation is often neglected because it is the last part to any design and make project. Do not make the mistake of completing it quickly or not doing it all as it counts for a lot of marks.

PACKAGING SYMBOLS

Packaging symbols are widely used to clearly and easily show a certain way in which that product should be handled or cared for. Below are just a few common examples: This symbol reminds those handling the package to keep out of the rain and not to store it in damp conditions. it is normally found on card based packages which would be damaged if wet.

The symbol seen opposite tells those handling the package that it must be stored the right way up. The arrows point towards the top of the package Created in 1988, when the Lion mark is displayed on a product it means that the manufacturer/retailer has agreed to the ‘ British Toy and Hobby Associations ’ Code of practice.

A symbol that is occasionally seen on packaging is the Fair Trade symbol. It means the farmer has received a fair price for the contents.

These are internationally recognisable symbols for recycling. They are seen on many packages. Again, it is to remind the consumer of the potential recycling properties of the package he/she is about to throw away. It is aimed at encouraging the consumer to recycling packaging rather than throwing it into a general rubbish bin.

The symbols here, represent that the product inside has been tested to British and European safety standards. These symbols that are normally applied to non-food products such as electronic products or toys. This symbol is often found on the packaging for batteries. The crossed lines means that the batteries should not be disposed of in a dust bin after they have been used.

The two hands holding or protecting the package is another reminder that the contents should be handled with care Keep Britain tidy sign to remind people to not drop litter on the floor.

POLYTHENE TEREPHTHALATE (PET) is a material widely used for packaging, especially drinks containers. It is 90% recyclable.

The broken wine glass suggests that the product inside the packaging could be easily damaged if dropped or handled without care and attention. The contents are fragile !

MORAL SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ISSUES

Moral issues are key points that the designer has to make to decide if something could be dangerous or controversial. They are not covered by any law or design regulation, and are usually related to a specific target market. For example, a poster designed to help discourage teenagers to stop taking dangerous drugs would be morally correct.

Social issues relate to the type of advertisement or promotion of products for use or consumption that may not be in the interest of the general consumer. These are related to the wider public in general. For example, the promotion of fast food, high sugar sweets and drinks.

Cultural issues are quite specific to the product and its advertising or packaging. They are quite dependant on the actual target market. For example, most packaging for vegetarian products will have a large green ‘ V ’ in a prominent place to show that it has no animal products.

KEY DESIGNERS

There are literally millions of designers around the globe yet some are a lot more influential than others. Most people have their own influential designers due to taste, likes and dislikes but all designers are influenced by the past present and what they think the future should or could look like.

You need to be able to recognise some key designers and their work so that you know and understand the impact they have had on current designers and work. Below are a few key designers that you will need to research and know and understand a little bit about for your final exam: • Harry Beck – Was an English Engineering Draftsman. He crated the iconic and very distinctive London underground map whilst working at the London Underground signals office in 1933.

Although it was a very radical design, looking like an electrical wiring circuit diagram, rather than a map, it proved to be a huge success and although changes have been made since the original version, the current map is still very close to the original.

Many other companies around the world use his Designer of the famous London underground map making it simple and easy to read.

KEY DESIGNERS

•Alberto Alessi The Italian design manager joined the family company of making metal kitchenware as design manager after training to be a lawyer. His vision was to combine mass production with good design creativity and craftsmanship, so that well designed and stylish products could be made available for everyone.

Alessi’s main contribution to design is not based on products he designed, yet his whole philosophy about products that inspired the likes of Philippe Starck and Alessandro Mendini to come up with stylish, creative and interesting products that could appeal to everyone. Alessi wanted his company to be an ideas factory.

• Jock Kinnear and Margaret Calvert The road signs in the 1950’s were very hit and miss and finding your way became dangerous. Jock and Margaret first developed the ‘

typeface

’ they would use called

sans serif

before adopting the idea of using pictograms (a 2D block coloured picture that explains a meaning or warning) to help “everyone” understand the possible warnings. The colours used were also there idea as they thought they are a simple yet bold enough colour to easily read and see.

KEY DESIGNERS

•Wally Olins Branding is a logo or image that is associated by the public with a product. Companies use graphic design to promote their products through a branding or corporate image. Wally is a brand consultant that has helped companies like P&O and BT develop a very successful corporate identity.

Great examples of these are Nike’s tick and Cadbury’s glass and a half of milk.

• Robert Sabuda Used to love pop-up books as a child and as a result taught himself paper engineering; precise accurate mechanisms made from paper, and specially designed to enable the desired actions to take place. After working for several publishers, Robert published his own books himself. He has won many awards and prizes for his unique, fun and style of pop-up books, cards etc. that are enjoyed the world over.

EQUIPMENT

A drawing compass is a drawing tool that can draw circles and arcs (incomplete circles) on sketches and diagrams A rotary cutter looks very similar to a pizza cutter and is used in the same way, however, as the blade is very sharp it is used to cut through fabric, card and paper. You can change the blade to suit your desired edge, for example wavy or dotted.

A circle template is used as a guide or template for drawing circles with different diameters without the use of a compass.

Scale Blade Handle Locking nut Compass point A circle cutter is used to cut the circle out directly rather than drawing it first. You set the diameter just like a compass and use the blade to draw and cut the circle out.

A scalpel or hobby knife is a sharp knife used for cutting through card or paper giving it a clean and neat edge. Most allow you to change the blade when it becomes blunt.

These are just a few of the different equipment pieces that could be used whilst making your products. Be sure to look for and revise them all though.

SKETCHING/DRAWING TECHNIQUES

Isometric is the best method of showing three dimensional (or pictorial ) views of an object and can be done using freehand or drawing equipment.

When drawing in isometric, ensure that: • All upright lines remain upright • All horizontal lines are at 30 ° • All measurements remain the same (full size as given) 30 ° 30 ° The thick and thin line technique is easy to remember - If you can see both of the faces (or sides) which make up the edge of the shape then draw a thin line to represent it. If you can only see one side, draw a thick line.

SKETCHING/DRAWING TECHNIQUES

Orthographic drawings contain all the information needed to make an item. Therefore this information must be accurate.

Orthographic drawings usually show three views of the object: • The

plan

(from above) • The

front elevation

(front view) • The

side elevation

(side/end view) The way orthographic drawings are laid out is defined by a British drawing Standard . This standard is BS8888 . You need to ensure that your dimensioning is done to BS8888 in order to gain full marks.

Third angle projection is the standard layout you will be expected to use in the exam.

Always make sure that the view you see from the right of the original object (front view) is drawn on the right. The view from the left is drawn on the left and what you see from above is drawn above (the front view).

Hidden detail is shown as dotted lines.

A simple example of a 3rd angle orthographic projection 3rd angle projection symbol

SKETCHING/DRAWING TECHNIQUES

One and two point perspective is based on the fact that all lines will meet at either one or two vanishing points.

One point perspective is made using one vanishing point. All horizontal lines meet together at one vanishing point. A good example of this is when you look down the railway line or straight road and the lines all seem to meet at one point as the image opposite suggests.

Two point perspective is a little more complicated as there are no horizontal lines. Instead, all non vertical lines should be drawn going to either one of the two vanishing points on the horizon as shown in the diagram to the right.

TYPES OF LINE / DIMENSIONING

There are lots of different line types that are needed when drawing in graphics. The main ones you will need to know are: Outlines - Thick and continuous Section / Projection lines - Thinner than outlines Center lines - Chain, long then short dash Hidden detail - Short continuous dashes Dimension Lines - Lighter than outlines with arrow heads that touch the line it meets.

Cutting line - Long line followed by two short dashes Dimensioning correctly means you need to keep to the British Standard 8888. This states that your dimension needs to written be above the line but not touching it or the drawing. If it is from the side then it needs to be able to be read from the right.

Dimensions are always in millimetres.

From the right 205

INFORMATION DRAWING

Data is probably best represented through the use of charts or graphs as it is simple to understand and easy to conclude from. It can be represented in a number of ways: • Bar charts - great for showing comparisons • Pie charts - great for showing proportions • Line graphs - used to show the changes in data • Pictographs - using symbols that the information refers to, to represent data.

Information can be described in a number of different ways but it is sometimes easiest to see and read in a graphical form.

Signs and labels are around or attached to everything we interact with on a day to day basis. The majority of signs are there to give us instructions or warnings about certain things. These need to be eye-catching and clear. Good examples are road work signs.

Labels tend to explain a lot about the things we buy or use giving us clear information. Great examples of these are barcodes, nutritional information, washing instructions on clothes and ingredients on food packaging.

Corporate identity is the primary method of making an organisation identifiable using only visual images that can be easily remembered.

Most companies use a logo to help the general public recognise them. This is usually a combination of type and symbols however, there are several different types of logo: • Logograms - use the initial letters of an organisation.

• Symbols - use a simplified image.

• Logotypes - use a different typeface.

• Background - an image used to communicate information to the customer.

Symbols are visual images used to communicate information to help people. There are three different types of symbols: • Enactive or action - Showing something happening.

• Iconic or pictorial - Wordless simplified images (often called pictograms) • Symbolic or abstract - To represent something we can recognise from the concept the image is portraying.

Ideograms are simplified images or pictures which relate to other people or things. For example, you would relate a picture of a plate, knife and fork to somewhere you can eat.

This is only a selection. You need to revise more.

MATERIALS

Corrugated card is used widely for packaging as it is strong and gives rigid support for the products inside. The internal structure differs depending on the situation it is needed for.

Styrofoam is used a lot for model making as it is very dense and easily manipulated making it very versatile for lots of designs.

Foam board is rigid foam sandwiched between two pieces of heavy paper. It comes in a variety of colours and finishes. It is usually used for POS and model making.

Card is also available in a large variety of colours, finishes and sizes, depending on the situation. They can also come textured if required.

Corriflute (polypropylene corrugated board) , is similar to corrugated carboard in its structure but made from plastic and used a square structure instead of a wavy form. It is used mainly for packaging or POS displays.

Paper is used very widely for most items and graphic products. It comes in a wide range of finishes and sizes depending on the situation needed. For example, A0 is sixteen times the size of A4.

PAPER AND BOARD

The main factors that are taken into account when choosing a paper or board are: • Cost • Finish • Strength • Brightness (whiteness) • Thickness Corriflute or Correx is a fluted plastic board (similar to corrugated board) and used mainly for exterior purposes as it is light and strong but also weather resistant. A common use for this material is estate agent for sale boards.

Foam board is generally between 4000-7000 microns thick and is made from two outer layers of high-quality card and a central layer of foam. It has quite a high cost ratio in comparison to other materials and is generally used for presentation boards.

Paper is sold by weight in grams per square metre (

gsm

). When it gets to 220 gsm it is considered board.

Board (card) is measured in microns (µm). There are 1000 microns in 1 mm. A typical birthday card is about 300 microns thick.

Corrugated card is a very common type of boards used mainly for packaging protection and point of sale stands. This is due to the card being quite thick, between 3000-5000 microns, giving it a strong yet fairly lightweight construction.

Virgin paper makes up 90% of all paper and the remaining 10% has some recycled content. Virgin paper tends to be stronger and generally used for food containers, helping to reduce contamination risk.

PLASTICS

95 percent of all plastics are made from the non renewable and environmental

unfriendly

material - oil. The other 5 percent is made from animal and vegetable matter which is biodegradable and therefore environmentally

friendly.

Plastics are widely used in packaging due to their large list of benefits. These include: There are many different types of plastics used for packaging, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. Most of • Tough - so that the product is protected.

• Lightweight - So that the product is not made to be them come with their own distinct recycling sign stating what type of plastic it is, as heavy.

• Clear - So that the consumer can see the product shown below.

There are however, 8 main different types of inside.

thermoplastic used in packaging. These are stated below and highlighted in Yellow. • Economical - Easily available and easy to make packaging from.

• Aesthetically useful - It is easy to be made to look good and can be printed on.

It is now your job now to find out a little more information about each one.

PETE - Polyethylene Terephthalate HDPE - High Density Polyethylene V - Expanded Polystyrene / Styrofoam PVC - Polyvinyl Chloride LDPE - Low Density Polyethylene PP - Polypropylene PS - Polystyrene Other - All other recyclable plastics Acrylic Cellulose Acetate Bioplastic

SHAPING AND FORMING PLASTICS

Vacuum forming is used to create fairly simple hollow shapes using a heated plastic such as polystyrene or PVC.

Injection moulding is the most common process used to shape many different ‘thermoplastics’ into the many different shapes of products and packaging you see around you everyday.

An accurate former or mould is made first of all with the same detail that you want the finished plastic form to have. This former is then placed at the bottom of the vacuum former. The plastic is then clamped in place above the mould and heated up until it softens. The plastic must not touch the former at this stage. Injection moulding involves heating up plastic granules of a thermoplastic into a liquid and forcing it into a metal mould before allowing it to cool and then solidify. This is then taken from the machine ready for it to be done again and again right after each other. The former or mould is then raised into the heated plastic sheet before the air is sucked or vacuumed out from underneath the former so that the plastic takes the same shape as the former. The plastic is then allowed to cool before the mould is taken out leaving a hollow plastic shape the same as the former.

Blow moulding is the process in which plastic is heated up and forced into a mould. Compressed air is then forced into the mould making the plastic expand into the same shape before cooling down and being released e.g. a plastic drinks bottle.

PACKAGING

Stacking and storage is fairly critical to ensure that a product is able to be stored and stacked on each other both in the warehouse or on the shop floor creating less wasted space yet keeping the product safe inside. Some products however, have over packaging - where too much packaging is used to help advertising; under packaging - where too little packaging is used and therefore doesn ’ t protect the product; and deceptive packaging - where the package gives the customer a false impression of the product inside.

There are 5 main reasons for packaging: • Stacking and storage • Information • Protect • Preserve • Promote Protection is key in order for the product to make it to the customers house in perfect condition. Materials such as corrugated card, bubblewrap and expanded polystyrene are good examples.

Preserving is mainly used within food packaging to keep the contents fresh and edible. The packaging often acts as a barrier against air, therefore an airtight seal is needed.

Information is now a legal requirement on most products, ensuring that the customer knows exactly what the product is inside the packaging and what it contains.

Promotion is a large part of ensuring that the product is bought by the customer. Large graphics and good use of bright colours are often incorporated into the design of the packaging to help catch the eye of the customer.

SMART MATERIALS

"Smart" materials respond to environmental stimuli with particular changes in some variables. For that reason they are often also called responsive materials. Depending on changes in some external conditions, "smart" materials change either their properties (mechanical, electrical, appearance), their structure or composition, or their functions. Photochromic materials change colour in response to light.

They are colourless in a dark place, and when sunlight or ultraviolet radiation is applied molecular structure of the material changes and it exhibits colour. E.g. light sensitive sunglasses.

Thermochromic materials change colour depending on their temperature. ‘ Thermo ’ means heat and ‘ chromic ’ means colour. E.g. temperature gauges.

Electrochromic or watches.

materials change colour depending on the amount of electricity applied, for example, liquid crystal displays (LCD) in clocks Hydrochromic materials change colour depending on the amount of water applied. For example, moisture testers for watering plants.

Phosphorescent materials absorb light energy during the day and give this energy off at night. For example watch hands that glow in the dark or glow in the dark stickers.

MODERN MATERIALS

The greatest modern technology is within the alternatives to the use of thermoplastics being used within packaging and modeling.

Cornstarch Polymers are derived made from crops such as potatoes, corn and maize which are high in starch. They are used to replace some of the oil based thermoplastics that are more commonly used in some food packaging as they are biodegradable although not as versatile.

A modern material is not ‘ smart ’ as it does not react to its surroundings but it is a new material that has been created within the last 50 years.

Paperfoam is made from a combination of starch based polymers and simple paper fibres. This produces a material that is scratch resistant and can be molded to form inserts to different packaging. It is fully biodegradable, weighs less than oil based plastic and can be dyed to any colour.

Nano technology is a method of changing the atomic structure of materials to make them better. For example, nano technology can make materials lighter, stronger, less expensive. For example, manipulating carbon to create a diamond.

Polymorph is a unique plastic that is hard at room temperature yet can be softened at 60 degrees to be easily molded into any shape needed. It can be machined when hard and returns to its hardened form when the heat is taken away.

Lyocell is a high strength paper fibre produced from wood pulp and is completely biodegradable within eight days if placed within damp conditions. It is used to make tea bags, envelopes and coffee filters.

PMC (precious metal clays) are made of 99.9% metal and 0.01% clay. This gives the metal an amazing ability to be shaped at room temperature. They are expensive however and used mainly by jewelers.

SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainability looks at the ways in which an item tackles the situation of making as smaller an impact on the environment as possible.

Examples of this are: • Can the packaging be made from a more sustainable material? Does it have an impact on the environment?

• Can technology be used to develop alternative energy sources to manufacture the item?

• Will the final product be priced to high for people to purchase it?

The six R ’ s are used to help designers and manufacturers reduce the environmental impact that a product may have. These are: • • • Rethink Refuse - Is there other solutions to make the product more environmentally friendly?

- Will the consumer accept the item or refuse it due to it ’ s sustainability issues?

Reduce - Can the product use less energy or material to manufacture? Should the • • • consumer buy a product that is not being sustainable?

Re-use - Can the product or packaging be re-used after its initial purchase?

Repair Recycle - Is the product repairable or is it designed to fail?

- The last resort to all items really, but can the packaging or product be recycled to become more efficient and sustainable?

FLOWCHARTS

There are three main flowchart shapes that would be used within a process or flowchart for the manufacture of your product or any prototype you may need to suggest in your exam.

There are a lot more shapes used in large scale production runs, however these are the three main ones that you will need to know about.

Terminator

– This is used to start and stop flowcharts.

Process

– This is used for every process throughout a flowchart.

Decision

– This is used for each decision option within a flowchart.

PRINTING PROCESSES

There are many different processes for printing many different types of media.

•

Offset Lithography

•

Letterpress

•

Gravure

•

Screen Printing

•

Flexography

•

Digital printing Physical products are still being printed on for all different purposes even though the modern world is dominated by the world of the internet. We still need magazines, books, stationary, newspapers, plastic bags etc. for everyday use. All printing is the process of transferring text or images onto a substrate.

PARTS OF THE PRINTING PROCESSES

There are 3 main parts to any printing process. These are : •

Ink

– These are generally a runny fluid that comes in many different colours. They tend to have many different chemicals in them to help them set, dry quickly etc. therefore they need good ventilation for health and safety. The main colours are Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black.

These are more commonly known as CMYK (K meaning black - a key colour) •

Image Carriers

– This is a physical component on which the image to be printed, is either cut, burnt or machined.

•

Substrates

upon.

– These are the products that are printed

Offset lithography • Flat aluminium plates (specially treated) • Photographically exposed then wrapped around roller • Exposed parts attract water • Non exposed parts allow ink to stick • Print onto plain roller to reverse image • Transfers to card or other materials

Printing card • Typically offset lithographic or gravure process used • 4 process colours – yellow, magenta, cyan, black • Varnishing, foil blocking, embossing are common

GRAVURE PRINTING • Used for very large print runs • Uses engraved plates • Ink is held in recesses known as cells • Paper is pressed onto plate and ink is lifted from cells

Paper Impression cylinder Doctor blade scrapes excess ink from cylinder Ink cells cut in cylinder Ink Trough

PRINTING TERMS

•Process colours make full range of colours, black adds definition (and text) •Spot colours – yellow, magenta and cyan – mixed to exact colour •Web offset – printed onto a roll (e.g. newspapers) •Plate – has the image on, wraps around a cylinder •Offset cylinder (or blanket cylinder) – reverses image •Impression cylinder •Varnish •Substrate – presses paper onto plate – adds shine (or could apply a matt finish) to print, sometimes in isolated areas – material to be printed e.g. paper

OTHER RELATED PROCESSES

• Die-cutting is the method most paper/card shapes are cut out (very similar to a pastry cutter). In the packaging industry the cutter is known as a cutting forme.

• Foil blocking is a method of applying a very thin layer of metal foil onto the surface to add a special effect • Embossing is the method where the surface of the card is pressed upwards to create a special effect • Varnishing gives a smooth and shiny finish to the image making it look better and adding some protection.

• Laminating provides a greater protection than simple varnish. It involves heat sealing a thin layer of a clear plastic to the printed surface.

• A surface development is a 2D, or flat, version of an item that will be eventually assembled into a 3D object.

A FEW EXAM TIPS • Offset lithography is the best answer for any questions relating to the printing of card packaging.

• Flexography is the best answer for any question relating to the printing of plastic film (such as carrier bags).

• Printing is a finishing technique suitable for card and some other materials.

MANUFACTURING METHODS

There are quite a few different types of production methods although only a few would normally be used for graphic products. The main ones that you will need to understand are:

Batch production

– This technique is used when an item is produced over a series of different workstations stage by stage. For example, seasonal items as the company does not yet know the demand for the product.

Mass production

– This is used to produce standardised items on a very large scale yet is not a continuous run. For example, this is used for chemical product on an assembly line.

One-off production

– This is where a single item is made for a certain or specific purpose. For example, a car with specific requirements such as colour, interior, heated seats etc.

Continuous production

– This is, as the name suggests, a continuous production run that does not stop. It works 24/7, 365 days a year and is used to produce items such as coca-cola cans.

DESIGN ANALYSIS Tips for successful product design analysis • Make sure you understand what the product actually does and how it works.

• Learn carefully how products are made in industry - especially look at what materials are used and how they are cut, shaped, formed, joined and finished.

• Apply this knowledge to the product you are asked to analyse.

• Think carefully about possible markets for different products: Who would buy the product? Why would they buy it? Where would it be used? Who would use the product?

CAD/CAM

Computer Aided Design (CAD) This is using the computers to assist the designer during the design process itself. Computers can be used very effectively when designing and making graphic products. An example of the tasks that can be done are: • Import images • Continually edit and revise work • Create animated sequences • Create accurate models with real render • Communicate designs These all help to save time and money, encourage experimentation and enable more information to be stored amongst other things.

Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM) is the manufacturing process of the item through a computer system. There are also lots of benefits of using IT in manufacturing processes. Some examples of these are: • Simulate and test products • Monitor accurate costs • Control machinery • Control the flow of material used in manufacturing • Communicate information • Improve health and safety.